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POULTRY PRODUCTION 



BY 



WILLIAM ADAMS LIPPINCOTT 

u 

PROFESSOR OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY, KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 



THIRD EDITION, THOROUGHLY REVISED 



ILLUSTRATED WITH 243 ENGRAVINGS 




LEA & FEBIGER 

PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK 
1921 









Copyright 

LEA & FEBIGER 

1921 



SEP 



\Q\9'M 



PRINTED IN U. S. A. 



>GI.A622725 



n 



TO 



^ 



MY FATHER 

JULIAN POST LIPPINCOTT 

WITHOUT WHOSE ENCOURAGEMENT THIS WORK WOULD 
NOT HAVE BEEN UNDERTAKEN IT IS 
AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED 



PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 



This l>ook has been written to furnish agricultural students 
with a comprehensive and convenient statement of the facts 
and principles of Poultry Production. It is hoped that it 
will render a service in teaching its subject in the great 
producing areas where farm poultry is abundant and poultry 
farms rare. It is of necessity very largely a compilation, 
and as far as possible consists of a systematic report of facts 
fully or partly established by careful experiment. 

The material is largely that used by the author in courses 
taught at Iowa State College and Kansas State Agricultural 
College during the last eleven years. This has been supple- 
mented by knowledge gleaned from the literature of the 
subject. Credit is given for material wherever used, when 
the person with whom it originated is known. 

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the assistance of the follow- 
ing gentlemen in the preparation of this book: 

Mr. J. G. Halpin, Professor of Poultry Husbandry, Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin, made several helpful suggestions, 
particularly in reference to the chapters on The Poultry 
Industry, Housing and Hygiene, and Preparing for Con- 
sumption. 

Mr. A. G. Philips, Professor of Poultry Husbandry, 
Purdue University, made several pertinent suggestions 
concerning the chapter on Breeding. 

Messrs. George C. Bowman and Harry Perry, of the 

(v) 



Vl PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION 

Seymour Packing Company, Topeka, Kansas, and Mr. 
John Perry, of Perry Brothers, packers of poultry and eggs, 
Manhattan, Kansas, have made numerous helpful sugges- 
tions concerning the chapters on The Poultry Industry, and 
Preparing for Consumption. 

Mr. F. E. Mussehl, Professor of Poultry Husbandry, 
University of Nebraska, made several suggestions concerning 
the chapter on Feeding, and Diseases and Parasites. He 
also compiled the tables of feeds in the appendix. 

Dr. J. S. Hughes, Associate Professor of Chemistry, 
Kansas State Agricultural College, aided materially in the 
revision of the chapters on Feeds and Feeding. 

Mr. H. A. McAleer, Chief, Foods Research Laboratory, 
Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, made 
pertinent suggestions concerning the revision of the chapters 
on the Poultry Industry and the Preparation of Poultry 
Products. 

Professor F. E. Fox, of Oregon State Agricultural College, 
and Professor L. H. Schwartz, of Purdue University, called 
the author's attention to several omissions and inaccuracies. 

Messrs. W. A. Henry and F. B. Morrison, of the University 
of Wisconsin, very kindly gave permission for the use of the 
analyses found in Table LIV in the Appendix, which were 
taken from their volume, Feeds and Feeding. 

I also desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. 
James E. Rice, Professor of Poultry Husbandry, Cornell 
University. It was my good fortune to secure my first college 
training in this subject under his direction. The principles 
which I learned from him are to be found throughout this 
book. 

W. A. L. 

Kansas State Agricultural College, 1921. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

Poultry Production and the Poultry Industry ... 17 

CHAPTER II. 
Breeds of Chickens 49 

CHAPTER III. 

The Breeding of Chickens 84 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Incubation of Hen's Eggs 175 

CHAPTER V. 

The Brooding of Chicks 230 

CHAPTER VI. 
Housing and Hygiene 249 

CHAPTER VII. 

The Nutrients and Nutrition 297 

CHAPTER VIII. 
The Feeds 329 

CHAPTER IX. 

The Compounding of Rations 360 

( vii ) 



viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER X. 

Feeding Practices and Appliances 377 

CHAPTER XL 
Turkeys 418 

CHAPTER XII. 
Ducks and Geese 429 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Pigeons and Guinea-fowl 443 

CHAPTER XIV. 
Preparing Poultry Products 451 

CHAPTER XV. 

Poultry Diseases and Parasites 503 

Appendix 523 

Index 531 



POULTRY PRODUCTION. 



CHAPTER I. 

POULTRY PRODUCTION AND THE POULTRY 
INDUSTRY. 

Definition of Poultry. 1 — Poultry is a term designating 
collectively those species of birds which render man an 
economic service and reproduce regularly and freely under 
his care. It includes chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, swans, 
guineas, pigeons, pheasants, peafoAvl and ostriches, and refers 
to them whether alive or dressed. 2 

Relative Importance of the Different Species of Poultry. — 
Chickens are of preeminent importance among the various 
species of poultry. As shown in Table I, the total number 
of poultry found on the farms of the United States 3 April 
15, 1910, was 295,876,176 birds. Of these, almost 95 per 
cent (280,340,643) were chickens; a little over 1.2 per cent 
(3,688,688) were turkeys; less than 1 per cent (2,904,359) 
were ducks; a trifle under 1.5 per cent (4,431,623) were 
geese; while the total for guineas, pigeons, peafowl and 
ostriches was slightly over 1.5 per cent (4,510,873). 

1 Adapted from Pusch, Allgemeine Tiefzucht. 

2 The names of the various species of poultry also designate them respect- 
ively when dressed, there being no separate terms, as in the case of "beef," 
"mutton," and "pork." 

3 Unfortunately these figures fail to take into account the numbers of 
poultry under three months of age, or those which are kept in the towns 
and villages, and which would appreciably increase both the total numbers 
and the relative proportion of chickens to other species. 

2 (17) 



18 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



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POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 19 

While 88 per cent of all the farms of the United States 
reported chickens, there was but 0.1 per cent that reported 
any species of poultry that did not report chickens. From 
1900 to 1910 the number of chickens in the United States 
increased 20 per cent, while during the same period the 
number of turkeys, ducks, and geese decreased 44.1, 39.3, 
and 21.9 per cent respectively. 

The popularity of the chicken is due to the fact that it 
furnishes a convenient source of fresh meat on the farm, 
and is, almost universally, a greater egg producer than are 
other sorts of poultry. 

Magnitude of the Poultry Industry. — The 1911 report of 
the Secretary of Agriculture places the national annual 
income from poultry products at $750,000,000, or approxi- 
mately the combined value of the gold, silver, iron, and coal 
mined the same year. It exceeds the value of the wheat 
crop reported in the last census. While this is only an esti- 
mate, it far more nearly approximates the truth than does 
the report of the 1910 census, which places the national 
annual income from eggs and carcasses sold at a little 
over $256,000,000. (See Table LI, Appendix.) The latter 
figures take no account of poultry and eggs produced in 
towns or villages, or consumed on the farm, or of birds under 
three months of age, all of which are highly important 
items, and which account somewhat for the discrepancy. 

"History has shown that as the population of a country 
increases, the hen population outruns the population of other 
domestic animals. In the United States, we had two hens 
per person in 1880 and a little over three hens per person in 
1900 and 1910. In the meantime the number of other (food) 
animal units . . . has decreased 30 per cent." * 

At average market values the carcasses and eggs produced 
on farms, as shown in Table LI (Appendix), would bring 
the poultry income of the nation up to $509,195,332, leaving 
the production of the villages, towns ,and cities unaccounted 
for. On this basis, however, poultry products represent 
16.9 per cent of the value of all products of animal origin, 

1 Benjamin: Jour. Am. Assn. Inst. Invest, in Poul. Husb., vol. iv, No. 3. 



20 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



including wool and mohair, as well as the food products. 
The census figures for the different states, while incom- 
plete, are fairly comparable, because of the fact that the 
same method was used in securing them in each state. 
The first ten states in point of income from poultry are 
shown in Table II. 



Table II. 



Rank. 

1 . 

2 . 

3 . 

4 . 

5 . 

6 . 

7 . 

8 . 

9 . 
10 . 



The Rank of the Fikst Ten States, with Reference 
to Their Total Income from Poultry. 1 

Total income 
State. from poultry. 

Ohio $18,362,951 

Missouri 18,285,980 

Illinois ........ 18,080,352 

Iowa 17,594,432 

Pennsylvania 16,192,756 

New York 15,161,114 

Indiana 14,635,464 

Kansas 11,623,882 

Michigan 10,293,428 

California 8,736,282 



Farm Incomes from Poultry. — The importance of a state 
to an industry and the importance of an industry to a state 
may be, and in the case of poultry production are two very 
different matters. While Missouri, for instance, ranks 
second in the total income to the state, she ranks only twenty- 
first in the average farm income derived from poultry. (See 
Table L, Appendix.) 

According to the 1910 census report the average farm 
income from poultry products sold in the United States 
was $92.39 on the basis of the total number of farms. (See 
Table L, Appendix.) On the basis of the total number of 
farms reporting poultry the average farm income for the 
United States is $104.98, or about $2 per bird. Figures are 
not available which show what proportion of the average 
total farm income the average poultry income is, but it is 
reasonable to suppose it will generally be greatest in those 
states whose average farm income from poultry is largest. 
The ten states showing the largest average farm incomes 
from poultry sold are listed according to their incomes in 
Table III. 



Compiled from the United States Census Report for 1910. 



POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 21 

Table III. — The Relative Rank of the First Ten States with 
Reference to the Average Farm Income from Poultry. 1 

Average farm income 
Rank. State. from poultry. 

1 . . . Rhode Island $267.70 

2 . . . California 256. 43 2 

3 . . . New Jersey 221.49 

4 Massachusetts 215.16 

5 . . . District of Columbia . . . . 199.01 

6 . . . Nevada ' 164.85 

7 . . . Arizona 156.1033 

8 . . . Connecticut 143.25 

9 . . . Delaware . 130.25 

10 . . . New Hampshire 124.91 

Farm Consumption of Poultry Products.— The average 
quantities of home produced meats (including eggs) consumed 
per family by 955 farm families (average size 4.8 adults or 
equivalent), in fourteen states was reported by Funk 4 in 1920 
to be as shown in Table IV. Poultry and eggs furnish 
39 per cent of the home produced meat food. 

Table IV. — Home-produced Meat Foods Consumed Annually by 
Farm Families (Data of Funk). 

Pounds. 

Pork and lard 499 

Beef 97 

Poultry 226 

Eggs 156 

Total 978 

The Primary Poultry Product.— Eggs are the leading poultry 
product. As shown in Table LI (Appendix), the average 
state income from poultry products was, in 1910 $5,227,403, 
of which $1,536,194 was credited to poultry carcasses sold, 
and $3,691,239 was credited to eggs, or considerably over 
two-thirds of the total income. 

At the same time the average annual farm income from 
eggs for all the farms in the United States was $60.57, as 
shown in Table L (Appendix), while the income from car- 
casses sold was $31.82, or slightly over half as much. 

1 For the average farm incomes for all the states, see Table L (Appendix) . 

2 These figures include the income from ten ostrich farms. 

3 These figures include the income from thirteen ostrich farms. 
* U. S. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 1082. 



22 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



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POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 23 

The reason for this difference probably lies in the unique- 
ness of eggs among human foods, their high digestibility, 1 
healthfulness, and general attractiveness. It is likely to 
continue until some economic condition arises whereby the 
poultry carcass becomes more highly valued by the general 
public, in comparison with the egg, than at present. In the 
light of recent discoveries concerning their content of food 
accessories or vitamins, eggs are likely to increase in esteem, 
rather than decrease. 

Although the eggs of ducks and guineas find their way 
into the regular channels of trade, their number is so small 
when compared with the number of hens' eggs as to make 
them practically a negligible quantity. Turkey and goose 
eggs are used for hatching purposes only. 

"The output of eggs is steadily growing, but the demand 
is growing even faster than the supply, due to the increased 
price of meat, as well as a preference for eggs as food; hence 
the price of eggs has risen. In 1899 the farm price was 
11.15 cents per dozen, as an average for the United States; 
in 1909 the average was 19.7 cents, weighted according to 
monthly production." 2 

The average farm price per dozen eggs on the first day of 
each month from January, 1910 to August, 1920 is shown 
in Table V. 

As indicative of the advance in prices of poultry as well 
as eggs during the last twenty-four years, the weighted 
average New York prices (estimated), furnished by the 
"Urner-Barry Company," New York City, are given in 
Table VI. These prices represent those paid wholesale 
receivers by jobbers for western products, all grades con- 
sidered except extras in the case of eggs. 



1 Several investigations reported by Langworthy show that 95 per cent 
of the dry matter of the edible portion of the egg is digested by man. In 
detail the digestibility of the various constituents of the edible portion was: 
protein, 90 to 98 per cent; lecithin, 91 per cent; neutral fat, 95 to 98 per 
cent; ash, 70 per cent — Farmers' Bulletin, 128. 

2 Pennington and Pierce, Year-book of United States Department of 
Agriculture, 1910. 



24 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Table VI. — Weighted New York Average Prices (Estimated) 

on Eggs, Live and Dressed Poultry for the Years 

1896 to 1919 Inclusive. 

Year. Eggs. 

1896 14.00 

1897 14.50 

1898 15.50 

1899 ........ 17 00 

1900 16.00 

1901 . 18.00 

1902 20.00 

1903 18.50 

1904 20.00 

1905 20.00 

1906 19.00 

1907 18.50 

1908 19.00 

1909 23.50 

1910 23.00 

1911 19.30 

1912 22.80 

1913 21.60 

1914 23.10 

1915 22.40 

1916 26.00 

1917 37.00 

1918 42.00 

1919 48.00 

During these same years the Chicago prices of eggs into 
and out of storage are shown in Table VII. 2 

Home Demand Supplied. — For the five years ending June 
30, 1920, the average annual imports of eggs were only 
1,131,602 dozens (see Table LVI, Appendix). During the 
same period the average annual exports of eggs were 
27,400,313 dozens (See Table LV, Appendix) . These figures 
refer to eggs in the shell. A rather recent development 
is the importation of considerable quantities of dried and 
frozen eggs, chiefly from China. During the five years 
ending June 30, 1920, the average annual imports of this 
class of goods were 12,822,693 pounds valued at $3,727,661. 
During the same period the average value of the exports was 
only $286,425. (See Tables LVII and LVIII in Appendix.) 

1 This slight decline in the price of live poultry was due to a very heavy 
increase (about 41 per cent) in the supply. 

2 Courtesy of Paul Mandeville, Merrill and Eldredge, and S. S. Borden 
Co., Chicago. 



Live 


Dressed 


poultry. 


poultry. 


9.00 


10.00 


8.50 


9.00 


8.80 


9.10 


9.80 


11.00 


9.30 


10.00 


9.50 


11.00 


11.50 


14.50 


12.50 


15.50 


12.50 


15.00 


13.00 


16.00 


12.80 


15.00 


13.80 


15.50 


13.50 


15.80 


16.00 


18.30 


17.00 


19.80 


15.00 


17.80 


15.50 


18.30 


16.00 


18.50 


16.20 


17.50 


15.70 


16.20 


18.75 


20.25 


24.00 


23.00 


33.00 


30.00 


32. 00 1 


37.00 



POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 25 



Table VII- 


-Cost of Storage 


Packed Eggs into Store, 


F. O. B. C 


hicago. 




Year. April. 


May 


June. 


1896 .... 9\ to 11$ 


8$ to 11 


10$ to 11$ 


1897 . . 






8$ to 9| 


8! to 11 


9! to 10$ 


1898 . . 






9 to 10! 


9 to 11$ 


9$ to 12 


1899 . . 






Hi to 13$ 


12 to 15 


13 to 14$ 


1900 . . 






10| to n$ 


10$ to 13 


11$ to 14 


1901 . . 






12 to 13J 


11 to 11! 


10$ to 12$ 


1902 . 






14$ to 17 


15$ to 16$ 


15$ to 17 


1903 . 






14$ to 15$ 


15 to 16 


14$ to 16 


1904 . . 






16$ to 18 


17$ to 18 


16$ to 18 


1905 . 






16f to 17$ 


16 to 17 


14! to 15f 


1906 . 






15$ to 18 


15 to 16$ 


15$ to 16$ 


1907 . 






16| to 17| 


16 to 17$ 


15 to 15$ 


1908 . 






15 to 16| 


16 to 16$ 


16 to 17 


1909 . 






18| to 22$ 


21 to 22$ 


19$ to 21 


1910 . 






21 to 22! 


19! to 21 


19 to 20 


1911 . 






15$ to 17| 


16 to 17$ 


15 to 16 


1912 . 






19| to 21$ 


19 to 20$ 


18$ to 19$ 


1913 . 






18 § to 19 


18$ to 19$ 


18 to 19 


1914 . . 






19 to 19! 


18$ to 19! 


19 to 19$ 


1915 . 






19$ to 20$ 


18$ to 19! 


18 to 19 


1916 . 






20f to 22$ 


21$ to 22$ 


21$ to 22f 


1917 . 






30| to 36! 


34 to 36! 


30$ to 35$ 


1918 . 






33! to 36 


33 to 35$ 


32 to 36 


1919 . 






. 41! to 44 


42$ to 46 


38$ to 43 


1920 . 




43 to 45f 


42 to 45 


40$ to 42$ 


Selling Price of Aprils and 


Northern Mays 


, Including 


Carrying Charges 


f. o. b. Chicago. 


Year. October. 


November. 


December. 


1896 . . . . 14 to 15 


15 to 17 


13 to 17 


1897 . 






13 to 13| 


11$ to 13$ 


12 to 15 


1898 . 






13$ to 14| 


14 to 16$ 


16 to 19 


1899 . 






16 to 16$ 


15 to 16 


13 to 16 


1900 . 






15$ to 16$ 


15$ to 19 


19 to 21 


1901 . 






16$ to 17 


16$ to 18 


18 to 20 


1902 . 






19 to 20 


19 to 20 


20 to 20$ 


1903 . 






19$ to 20$ 


20$ to 25 


24 to 29 


1904 . 






18 to 18$ 


18 to 21 


19 to 21$ 


1905 . 






19 to 20$ 


20 to 20$ 


19 to 20$ 


1906 . 






20 to 20$ 


20$ to 22$ 


20 to 24 


1907 . 






16! to 19$ 


15$ to 17 


15$ to 17 


1908 . 






20$ to 22$ 


22$ to 25 


23 to 27 


1909 . 






22$ to 23! 


22 to 23! 


21 to 24$ 


1910 . 






22$ to 23 


22$ to 23$ 


21 to 22! 


1911 . 






18$ to 19$ 


19$ to 22 


21 to 23 


1912 . 






22$ to 23$ 


21 to 22$ 


17$ to 21 


1913 . 






23 to 26$ 


25 to 28 


25 to 30$ 


1914 . 






20 to 22! 


20$ to 24 


20 to 25$ 


1915 . 






22! to 23$ 


20! to 23! 


20$ to 22 


1916 . 






26| to 30! 


30 to 37 


28 to 34! 


1917 . 






32$ to 37 


30 to 33$ 


31 to 41 


1918 . 






39$ to 44$ 


43 to 44$ 


42$ to 45 


1919 . 






44 to 47 


46 to 48 


47$ to 50 


1920 . 






46 to 50 


48 to 56$ 


56 to 59 



26 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Geographical Distribution of Poultry.- — "The great egg and 
poultry producing territories of the United States can be 
divided according to their geographical location and the 
character of the industry, into three quite distinct sections. 
The first of these comprises the northeastern states, including 
New England, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and 
Maryland. This is a section in which the poultry industry 
is one of importance and where many large and specialized 
poultry farms are located. Inasmuch as it also happens to be 
one of the greatest consuming sections of poultry products, 
the local supply does not supply the demand, and large 
quantities are brought in from other parts of the country." 1 

"The second producing section comprises the states 
bordering the Pacific. Here the conditions are in many 
respects identical with those of the first section. The eggs 
produced all find a market in the cities of those states, and 
the quantity is not sufficient to supply the demand." 2 

"The third section comprises principally states lying in 
the Mississippi Valley. They are Minnesota, Wisconsin, 
Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, 
Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and 
Texas. In this great section the vast majority of the eggs 
(and poultry) are produced; yet the character of the poultry 
keeping is quite different from that in the other two sections 
discussed. There are in this whole stretch of country few 
farms which can properly be termed poultry farms, or where 
poultry raising can properly be considered one of the main 
branches of the farm work." 3 

Over 88 per cent of all the farms in the United States 
reported poultry in the census of 1910. The total number 
of poultry on the farms at that time was 295,876,176, with 
an average of 6,038,289 birds for each state and 53 birds 
to each farm, with value per bird of 52 cents. 4 Nearly 54 
per cent of the total number is found in ten states, which 
are listed according to their rank in Table VIII. 

1 Lamon, Year-book, United States Department of Agriculture, 1911. 

2 Loc. cit. 

3 Loc. cit. 

4 According to the census of 1900 it was 34 cents. 



POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 27 

Table VIII. — Showing the Comparative Rank of the First Ten 

States with Regard, to the Number of Poultry Kept, 

and Their Total Value. 1 



Rank. 


Numbers kept. 


Rank. 


Total value. 


1. Iowa 


23,482,880 


Iowa 


$12,270,000 


2. Illinois . 


21,409,053 


Missouri 


11,871,000 


3. Missouri 


20,897,208 


Illinois 


11,697,000 


4. Ohio . . . 


17,342,289 


Ohio . . . 


9,533,000 


5. Kansas . 


15,736,038 


New York . 


7,879,000 


6. Indiana . 


13,789,109 


Indiana . 


7,762,000 


7. Texas . 


13,669,645 


Pennsylvania . 


7,674,000 


8. Pennsylvania . 


12,728,341 


Kansas . 


7,377,000 


9. Minnesota . 


10,697,075 


Michigan . 


5,611,000 


10. New York . . 


10,678,836 


Texas . 


4,807,000 



The rank of these states with reference to numbers and 
value differs somewhat. The causes for this difference usually 
lie in the quality of the poultry, the distance from market, 
or both. The first ten states with reference to the value of 
their poultry at the time of the census are also listed accord- 
ing to their rank in Table VIII. Nearly 56 per cent of the 
total valuation of poultry in the United States is found in 
these ten states. It will be noted that the same states are 
found in each list, except that Minnesota, which stands 
ninth in the number of poultry kept, is replaced by Michigan 
in the list of states whose poultry shows the greatest value. 



POULTRY PRODUCTION. 

Poultry production includes those operations incident 
to breeding and rearing domestic birds for food purposes 
and for pleasure and in preparing their products 2 for market. 
These are the activities of the breeder, the producer, and 
the packer. 

Early History of Poultry Production. — Poultry raising is 
essentially a home industry. It appeared in this country 
at least as soon as the first homes were made in Jamestown 
in 1607. The entire product of the flock, including the 
feathers, was used at home. It has, however, never been a 
frontier occupation in the sense that beef production and, 

1 For complete statistics of all the states, see Table LI I, Appendix. 

2 The by-products of poultry production are feathers, fertilizer, gizzard 
linings as a source of commercial pepsin, and egg-shells as a source of pow- 
dered calcium carbonate for infant feeding. Of these, feathers are by far 
the most important being in the case of the ostrich the primary product. 



28 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

to a less degree, wheat production, which tend to be replaced 
by crops yielding more food units per acre, have been. 
Poultry and eggs have been from the first, for the most part 
by-products of general agriculture. It was not until long 
after most of the present-day industries which emanated 
from the farm had become fairly well established that 
poultry raising with its associated industries began to be 
accounted an industry and recognized as of any commercial 
importance. 

This was largely due to two associated causes. The first 
was the high perishability of both poultry and eggs and the 
second the poor means of transportation in early days. 

Commercially the poultry industry as a whole is dependent 
upon present-day improved transportation facilities, and 
the history of its development has very largely paralleled 
the history of the development of the modern common car- 
riers and advanced with the improvement of refrigerator 
cars. It was not until about 1869 when the refrigerator 
was first brought into use for long distance hauling, that 
means were afforded for transporting poultry products from 
the farm to distant cities and production, beyond that 
demanded by home needs, became an object and poultry a 
source of any considerable money income. 

Present Organization of the Poultry Industry. — The 
poultry industry is at present made up of several more or 
less clearly defined coordinate industries which have to do 
with growing and marketing poultry and poultry products. 
Taking their names from the respective industries in which 
they are employed, the persons engaged in the poultry 
industry as a whole may be designated as (1) production- 
breeders; (2) fanciers and fancier-breeders; (3) producers; 
(4) customs hatchers and baby chick dealers; (5) buyers, 
(6) packers and (7) distributers. 

While this classification holds true, it should be clearly 
recognized that there is no hard-and-fast line between the 
classes, and that the same person often engages in two or 
more lines of work. Thus the producer of the best type 
carries on breeding operations within certain limits. The 
breeder should be somewhat of a fancier, and the packer 
is usually a buyer and distributer as well. 



POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 29 




30 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

The Production-breeder. — A breeder is one who seeks to 
improve stock through proper selection and mating. From 
the standpoint of poultry production, with the exception of 
ostriches, improvement refers to an increased efficiency in 
the production of human food. A breeder whose primary 
aim is to raise the food manufacturing efficiency of any 
species of poultry may for convenience be called a "produc- 
tion breeder". A comparatively small, but constantly grow- 
ing number of breeders are turning their attention toward 
production. Their principal function with regard to pro- 
duction is to furnish the producer with breeding males of 
standard varieties with which to improve his flocks whether 
the flocks are mongrel or pure-bred. Pedigree breeding, 
the only method by which prepotent males able to sire 
efficient producers can be produced, with any regularity is 
out of reach of the producer, who must make his profit by 
securing a narrow margin on many birds, rather than a wide 
one on a few. The true breeder is a producer in the very 
best and highest sense. The producer can follow only as far 
as the breeder leads the way. 

Fanciers and Fancier-breeders. — The term "fancier" refers 
to one who keeps poultry for pleasure rather than for the 
production of food, while a "fancier-breeder" is one who 
breeds poultry for fanciers. At the present time the fancier- 
breeders as far outnumber the production-breeders as the 
fanciers are outnumbered by producers. 

The preponderance of fancier-breeders over production- 
breeders is largely due to three causes. The first is the 
elaborate poultry show system in vogue in this country, the 
second is the lack of anything like the general adoption of a 
merit system in the purchase of farm poultry products, and 
the third is a profound ignorance of the laws of productive 
breeding. 

The poultry show system of America is more complete 
than for any other line of live stock. Nearly every city 
(and very many of the towns and villages), throughout the 
United States and Canada has its annual poultry show, at 
which the fanciers from a greater or less range of surrounding 
territory exhibit their birds in competition for premiums. 



POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 31 

Back of these shows, which are comparatively seldom held 
for profit, are usually to be found an enthusiastic group of 
fanciers organized into a more or less local association. 

The characteristics or points by which competing birds 
are compared, are those beauties which, taken collectively, 
make up the bird representing the prevailing fashion. The 
useful type has not been made the basis of the show type 
with poultry to nearly so great a degree as with other food- 
producing animals or with draft horses. Improvement in 
this line during the last few years, however, has been very 
marked, and there is a noticeable tendency for those fanciers 
who carry on breeding operations to become breeders from 
the stand-point of production. 

It is to the credit of the fancier, however, that there are 
distinct types and breeds of poultry. Both breeders and 
producers are under lasting obligations to them for the 
possibility of that uniformity which is so essential as a basis 
of successful feeding in flocks, and in marketing modern 
high-class products. 

A second reason why the fanciers outnumber the breeders 
is that there has been no merit system in general use for 
purchasing poultry products, and hence there has been little 
incentive toward improved products. When market poultry 
and eggs are universally purchased from the farmer on the 
basis of their quality, as cream is bought on the basis of 
butter-fat content in many sections, and a better price is 
paid for good goods than for poor goods, poultry breeding 
in the best sense will become a practice and the number of 
production-breeders will more nearly approach that of the 
fancier-breeders . 

A third cause has been the lack of anything like definite 
rules of selection in production-breeding practice. There are 
now happily being worked out certain correlations between 
form and function which are giving some characteristics at 
least, of a producing type. With the increase in knowledge 
concerning the inheritance of egg production, the growth of 
the practice of pedigree breed ng and of the dependence 
upon the progeny test in estimating the breeding value of a 
given bird this cause bids fair to disappear. 



32 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

The Producer. — By a "producer," reference is made to a 
person who raises poultry primarily for human consumption. 

During the last twenty-five years a great many attempts 
have been made to operate farms which had as their principal 
market crops, poultry and eggs. In fact, numerous attempts 
have been made to go beyond this and specialize on a certain 
sort of product, and through the nineties, broiler, egg, and 
roaster farms were frequently heard of and much exploited 
by the press. 

Today farms of any considerable size that have devoted 
their entire attention to poultry production (aside from duck 
raising) and have been a business success for a period of ten 
years are exceptions and generally due to especially advan- 
tageous conditions of production or market, not generally 
available. While there are no reliable statistics covering 
the point, the vast majority of producers are general farmers 
whose poultry raising is carried on as a subordinate line in a 
system of diversified farming. 

Hastings, 1 who has had every opportunity to observe, 
thinks that " more than 98 per cent of the poultry and eggs 
are produced on the general farm," while Robinson 2 hazards 
the opinion that "the greater part, probably over 90 per 
cent, of all the poultry sold in the United States is produced 
by poultry keepers who do not make a business of poultry 
culture, but keep poultry on a small scale while giving their 
attention chiefly to some other occupation, usually general 
farming." 

In the extreme eastern and western states and in the 
vicinity of certain of the large cities in the central states, 
there are sections containing numerous small tracts given 
over to the production of eggs and poultry for special trades. 
Possibly the best known of these is the Petaluma district 
of California, which specializes in white eggs and broilers 
for the winter tourist trade. The Vineland district in New 
Jersey, as described by Lewis, 3 furnishes new-laid white 

1 Formerly with the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

2 Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture, 

3 Productive Poultry Husbandry. 



POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 33 

eggs for the fancy New York market. The Little Compton 
district of Rhode Island produces brown eggs for the New 




Live poultry going to the market. These birds would bring more money 
if they were all alike. An opportunity for community breeding. (Courtesy 
of United States Department of Agriculture.) 

England markets. In the well-known South Shore district 
of Massachusetts a specialty is made of the so-called "soft 
roaster" for the city markets of the East, though the 



Fig. 3 




Refrigerator car. (Courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture.) 

majority of these birds are grown on farms where poultry 
raising is not the principal occupation, 
3 



34 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



Specialized, intensive, small poultry farms bear a similar 
relation to general poultry production that the greenhouse 
culture of vegetables does to general market gardening. 
They are useful for the production of out-of-season luxuries 
for the wealthy, but have little to do with feeding the nation. 
And in common with the production of luxuries generally, 
though large and tempting profits are sometimes made, 
as an exclusive occupation they are hazardous. 

Ftg. 4 




The "chicken-house" of a Western poultry-packing establishment, given 
over entirely to milk-feeding and dressing chickens. (Courtesy of Seymour 
Packing Company.) 



The general farm producer usually disposes of his products 
as staples and his problem, since he sells at the current 
quotation, is to reduce the cost of production. Where the 
poultry or eggs are handled as specialities, the great problem 
is marketing, of getting a special or fancy price for each 
individual unit of the product. 

The Customs Hatcher and Baby Chick Dealer.— A present 
tendency in poultry production is for the producer to depend 
upon a skilled hatcher to furnish him with living chicks. 
This practice though ages old in Egypt and China, is a 
comparatively recent development in America. Though 



POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 35 

assuming large proportions, the baby chick industry is yet 
in its infancy in this country, and an expansion hardly yet 
dreamed of is the prospect of the next few years. It is not 
improbable that the hatching of chicks for the surrounding 
territory may ultimately become one of the functions of the 
poultry packer just as the fattening and finishing already 
have. 

The term customs hatcher refers to a person who incubates, 
for a consideration, eggs which he does not own, usually for 
nearby producers. Good sized centralized hatching plants 
are appearing in most communities where poultry forms an 
important item among the agricultural products. This 
takes the bother of hatching and the necessity of purchasing 
an incubator away from the farm, yet allows the producer to 
develop his own line of stock. 

The baby chick dealer is one who owns the eggs he incu- 
bates and sells the chicks. The latter are frequently hatched 
by the thousand and may be shipped hundreds of miles to 
customers. At the present time over two-thirds of the baby 
chicks sold go to city or town customers. 

The Buyer. — In nearly every trading point in the United 
States there is someone who is willing to buy eggs and poultry 
from the producer at any season of the year. At the smaller 
points this is usually • the merchant of whom the farmer 
buys his supplies, and who pays for the poultry and eggs 
in trade. At larger points there is likely to be besides the 
merchant one or more persons who give their whole attention 
to buying farm produce, and in many cases to buying poultry 
produce alone. Such a buyer usually pays a little less than 
the merchant gives in trade, but is able to handle a consid- 
erable volume of business because he makes immediate 
payment in cash. 

To be a really efficient member of the poultry industry 
a buyer should give his quotations only on a quality basis 
and provide himself with refrigerator facilities. 

Whether the buyer is a merchant, an independent produce 
man, or an agent of the packer or distributer, his is the first 
step in the gathering and concentrating of a gigantic crop of 
highly perishable products, aggregating hundreds of millions 



36 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



in value, from very many farms whose average yearly sales 
probably amount to a few hundred dollars at most. As 
indicated in Figure 6, the original buyer may be any one 
of several classes of dealers, or the goods may pass through 
the hands of three classes of buyers before the work of 
distribution is begun. 

The Packer.— The function of a packer is to prepare food 
products for preservation and consumption, and to preserve 
them. The home-killing of poultry for general consumption 
is passing just as the home slaughtering of beef and pork has 
largely given way to the slaughter houses of the large packing 
centers. 

Fig. 5 



K| § 


Mi% 7i5\V ' 




w\ 






,. ,_::>"•:''■ ■■;:^y .."-■-■■ ■ S"*i 










5 * * • 








JKRf-M 








JK Hi 






:; T^ % ; 








•■'. .-y-'-r. ' 


«*8»^_, i 




a^jjBJKSFwrw"*** 1 









































Poultry receiving-room of a Western poultry packing-house. (Courtesy of 
Seymour Packing Company.) 



The preparing and preserving of both eggs and poultry 
for general consumption have been carried on for some time 
by firms doing a general packing business. More recently, 
establishments specializing on poultry products alone have 
been able to enter into successful competition with the 
organizations doing a general packing business. 

The states of Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Minne- 
sota, Indiana and Tennessee are those in which the poultry- 
packing business has shown the greatest development. While 
it is carried on to a greater or less extent in all the states, most 
of the establishments dressing poultry or shipping eggs are 



POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 37 

small, without adequate equipment and employing only the 
crudest methods. 

The present tendency is toward centralized plants having 
all the facilities of a first-class packing establishment, of 
which mechanical refrigeration is the most fundamental 
item. 

Fig. 6 



Pf?ODC/C£R 















/=i4c:/T£-/=? 



uo&&£:f? 



/=?ETS4/JL£:/¥ 



J L 



&4/TE&S 
GO/YEEC 770/Y£:/?S 



/-/07-JE/.3 
/D//V//YG Cs4/=?S 



COSVSOM/E7? 



Showing routes by which poultry products reach the consumer from the 

producer. 



Aside from dressing and preserving poultry, eliminating 
the bad eggs (which, under the present general system of 
buying eggs from producers without regard to quality, are 
bound to find their way into the channels of trade), and 
preserving the good ones, the packer has been forced by the 



38 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



exigencies of the business to take up the work of fattening 
and finishing the poultry before killing it. 



Fig. 8 




Egg-breaking room at a Western packing-house. Eggs are broken out 
for freezing. See egg churns at the right, The drying of eggs in this 
country has largely been discontinued, owing to the fact that American 
capital has found it more profitable to dry the cheaper Chinese eggs in 
that country and ship them to America. (Courtesy of Seymour Packing 
Company.) 

The Distributer.^ As indicated in Figure 6, poultry pro- 
ducts may reach the consumer by various routes. In a very 
small proportion of cases the producer deals with the con- 
sumer direct, and is also a distributer. In an increasing, 
though still small, number of cases, the local buyer is a 
merchant who retails the products at the place of produc- 
tion. In the great majority of cases, however, both eggs 
and poultry reach the consumer by a more circuitous route. 
After the products have been concentrated in the hands of 
the wholesale buyers, including the packers, they may 
be turned over to a commission merchant or broker, who 
disposes of them to the jobber in quite large quantities. 
The jobber in turn distributes them among the various retail- 
ing agencies, which include the retail markets, bakeries, con- 



POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 39 

fectioneries, hotels, clubs, restaurants, dining cars, the steam- 
ship dining service, and the like, which deal directly with the 
consumer. 

There are numerous modifications of this route. One or 
more of these steps in distribution may be eliminated, as 
would be the case if a cooperative marketing association 
dealt directly with a jobber or a retailer, or the packer sold 
to a hotel; but the great bulk of the goods at present passes 
through the several steps indicated at the left of Figure 6. 

Reasons for Widespread Production.— The reasons for 
the widespread production of poultry are mainly as 
follows : 

1. The first consideration in keeping poultry is often not 
the securing of products for sale, but for home consumption. 
Chickens on the general farm or the city lot furnish eggs 
at less cost, and because of their high perishability, of better 
quality, than may usually be secured from the stores. The 
cheapness of ' production lies, as Robinson 1 points out, in 
the fact that chickens as well as most other poultry "may 
be fed largely on food wasted by man (in manufacture as 
well as in consumption) and on foods wasted by or not 
available for the larger domestic animals. ' ' At the same time, 
all kinds of poultry furnish a constant and convenient form 
of highly palatable fresh meat and they thrive nearly every- 
where that man can live. 

2. "Very little poultry is kept profitably in this country 
except on farms where it is in the strictest sense a non- 
competing crop. Where it is kept in small quantities, it 
forages for itself, consuming mainly waste products besides 
destroying insects, and does not exhaust the soil at all, 
but tends rather to enrich it. Again it does not compete 
for the farmers' time, being cared for mainly by the 
labor of women and children. This may help to explain 
how difficult it is for anyone to make a living raising 
poultry alone in competition with farm poultry, unless one 
is prepared to go into business on a large scale and is equipped 
with thorough scientific knowledge. Where diversified farm- 

1 Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture. 



40 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

ing means the growing of non-competing crops specialization 
is a long way off." 1 

3. Poultry is receiving increasing recognition as an excel- 
lent means of converting the farm and table waste into 
cash, particularly when this waste is supplemented by feeds 
furnishing certain essential ingredients that are otherwise 
lacking. Poultry products are crops for which a constant 
demand furnishes an outlet, usually at good prices, in either 
cash or trade. With the growth of closer relations between 
producers and consumers and the development of cooperative 
agencies for buying and distributing general farm produce, 
poultry products are destined to assume a position of greater 
though always subordinate importance among other farm 
products. 

4. The general farm furnishes such favorable conditions 
for poultry that little experience or skill is necessary to 
succeed in handling it in a small way. Because of the large 
fields and pastures which are covered with greenness and 
are available for ranges, the variety of grains and insects 
to be picked up and which demand exercise in the getting, 
the numerous buildings and trees for protection from the 
sun and wind, and the fact that the flocks are usually small 
and the farms so large that there are few birds to -the acre, 
poultry thrive in spite of any lack of skill used in their care. 

The late Prof. G. M. Gowell 2 saw clearly when he said: 
"Poultry husbandry is a legitimate agricultural indus- 
try. ... It occupies a special place in agriculture and 
will never displace other work except on limited areas. It 
requires large quantities of grains and concentrated feeding 
material and but small quantities of bulky foods. Larger 
animals will always occupy the farms and prepare the 
coarser crops of the land for market." Robinson 3 acutely 
observes that "the stable factor in production is the farm 
flock. . . . The natural tendency of the poultry industry 
is not to develop production on a large scale, but to extend 
and improve ordinary small operations as far as possible 

1 Carver, Principles of Rural Economics. 

2 Maine Bulletin No. 144. 

3 Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture. 



POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 41 

without changing the position they occupy as subordinate 
to other interests of the poultry keeper and other uses of 
his land." 

While there will always be a place for the growing of 
agricultural specialities, by far the greater part of the 
agricultural industry must always be concerned with the 
production of staple crops. 

General Farm Versus Intensive Conditions. — As the result 
of keeping complete records of eighteen farm flocks of 
chickens and thirteen town flocks, in Ohio, for a period of 
one year beginning August, 1909, Lloyd and Elser 1 report 
some illuminating facts regarding the keeping of poultry 
under intensive and extensive conditions. This may be 
taken as representing the results to be attained under similar 
conditions throughout the heavy producing states. 

The town flocks, excluding one owned by a commercial 
poultryman, varied in size from 18 to 97 birds, averaging 
40 birds. These flocks gave results varying from an average 
loss per bird of $0.93 to an average profit of $1.64 per bird, 
under pre-war prices. The average profit per bird for all 
the town flocks was $0.36 per bird for the year. 

It is highly interesting to note, however, that the average 
profit per bird in flocks above the average size was $0.26, 
while the average profit per bird in flocks below the average 
in size was $0.44. 

Eight of the flocks were in close confinement and had no 
range. The feed cost per bird was in this case $0.99, while 
the feed cost for those having a limited range was $0.87 
for the year. No statement is made of the feeding of these 
flocks, and it is impossible to draw conclusions as to how 
much of this saving is due to the green feed furnished in the 
form of pasture to the ranging birds. 

The eighteen farm flocks varied in size from 38 to 370 
fowls and averaged 121. The average profit per bird in 
different flocks varied from $2.47 to $0.62, with an average 
profit per bird for eighteen farm flocks of $0.87. These 

1 Ohio Circular No. 118. 



42 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

differences were probably due to the skill of the respective 
farmers and the comparative vigor of the flocks. 

The average profit per fowl in flocks of less than average 
size was $0.98, while the average profit per fowl in flocks 
above average size was $0.63. This average result was in 
spite of the fact that because of intelligent care and rational 
feeding three of these flocks which exceeded 300 birds gave 
an average profit of $0.86 per bird. 

The marked differences between the town flocks and the 
farm flocks were not accounted for by greatly increased 
production. The average egg production per hen was 71 
for the farm flocks and 70 for the town flocks. It arose 
rather from the fact that the farm fowls secured gleanings 
from grain scattered at harvest and wasted or undigested 
by live stock, waste from the orchard and garden, offal at 
butchering time, abundant pasture, weed seeds and insects, 
as well as sour or unused sweet milk. 

During the same period the flock of a commercial poultry- 
man residing in town, numbering 333, was kept at an 
average feed cost of $0.81 per bird, and returned a profit 
of $1.46 per bird. The average egg production was 141 
eggs per bird. This egg production which is double that 
secured in the flocks mentioned above is the result of greater 
skill, better stock and equipment. 

In all cases, labor and purchased, or marketable, feed 
were charged against the flocks, but no overhead charges 
were included. The records in detail are shown in Tables 
IX and X. It should be understood that the preceding 
costs and profits were made on the basis of pre-war prices. 
Their comparative value, however, is probably not affected. 

Limiting Factors of the Future. — There are three main 
considerations which will define the general limits of poultry 
production on the farm beyond that necessary to market 
the waste. These are (1) the efficiency of poultry as producers 
of human food ; (2) the relation of poultry to the conservation 
of soil fertility; and (3) the extent to which general methods 
of disease prevention may be developed that can success- 
fully cope with the intensive conditions that progressively 
prevail as the number of birds on a given acreage is increased. 



POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 43 



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POULTRY PRODUCTION 



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POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 45 

For specific farms, transportation facilities and nearness 
to markets determine the commercial advisability of empha- 
sizing poultry production, and unfavorable soil or climatic 
conditions are, of course, local limiting factors. 

Food Manufacturing Efficiency of the Hen. — As the question 
of the food-supply becomes more and more acute and the 
cost of living higher, the efficiency of the various domestic 
animals as human food factories will be taken more and more 
into consideration. In the last analysis, other things being 
equal, the animal that manufactures the least human food 
from a given amount of digestible feed will be the one whose 
product will be the most expensive. As food becomes in- 
creasingly expensive there will be a cessation in the con- 
sumption of the more expensive kinds as articles of common 
diet, and they will be placed among the luxuries. 

As the size of farm or even town flocks grows beyond that 
necessary for waste consumption, the efficiency of poultry 
with reference to food production is going to play a larger 
and larger part. 

Unfortunately, data are not available which show the com- 
parative efficiency of poultry with other animals except for 
the chicken. A comparison between the hen and her com- 
petitors among the larger animals, with regard to the amount 
of marketable product and the actual edible solids produced 
from one hundred pounds of digestible organic material in 
the ration, is shown in Table XI. 

Table XI. — The Amount of Human Food Produced from One 
Hundred Pounds of Digestible Organic Matter 
in the Ration. 1 



Animal. 


Product. 




Marketable produc 


t. Edible solid 




Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Dairy cow . 


Milk .... . 139.00 


18.00 


Swine . 


Dressed carcass 








25.00 


16.10 


Calves . 


Dressed carcass 








36.50 


8.10 


Fowls, large 


Live weight 








19.60 




Fowls, small 


Live weight 
Dressed carcass 
Eggs . . . 








19.60 
15.60 
19.60 


4.20 
5.10 


Broilers 


Live weight 
Dressed carcass 








28.70 
23.89 


3.50 


Steers . 


Dressed carcass 








8.30 


2.75 


Sheep and lain 


js Dressed carcass 








7.00 


2.60 



1 Adapted from figures given in Jordon's Feeding of Farm Animals. 



46 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Conservation of Soil Fertility. — It is becoming increasingly 
necessary to market crops in those forms which carry the 
least amount of the valuable fertilizing constituents away 
from the farm. It is a matter of common knowledge that 
live stock and their products offer the best opportunity for 
accomplishing this. This is owing to the fact that very 
much of the fertility found in the feed and totally lost if sold 
in the form in which it is grown, may be returned to the 
soil in the manure, if fed to stock. 

The per cent of the fertility value of the feed required 
in the production of several common food products of 
animals origin respectively, including eggs and broilers, 
which is left on the farm in the form of manure is shown 
in Table XII. The products are arranged in order according 
to the per cent of the value of the fertilizing constituents 
left on the farm. 

Table XII. — The Per Cent of Fertility Left on Farm 
by Products of Animal Origin. 1 

Per cent of fer- 
tility value left 
on the farm. 

Butter 99.83 

Bacon .92.24 

Beef ... 91.94 

Eggs . . ... 89.56 

Broilers . . ... . . .87.20 

Milk 86.24 

Cheese 58.03 

Disease and Intensive Conditions. — That the problems of 
growing poultry are difficult under certain conditions and 
fairly simple under others is shown by the fact that while 
poultry-farming enterprises of any considerable proportions 
which have confined their efforts to production and have been 
profitable through a series of years are rather exceptional, 
the volume of poultry on farms in the United States increased 
over 18 per cent from 1900 to 1910. (See Table I.) 

This means that for some reason poultrymen, who are 
presumably skilled in the various operations that make up 

1 Compiled from various sources, chiefly Sherman, Chemistry of Food 
and Nutrition; and Henry and Morrison, Feeds and Feeding. 



POULTRY PRODUCTION AND POULTRY INDUSTRY 47 

poultry husbandry, have failed to do on a large scale what 
many farm folks who make no pretensions at skill are doing 
with at least some degree of success on a small scale. 

The majority of the very many market poultry farms that 
have been undertaken and have failed, have failed because 
they have been unable to maintain the health and productive 
vigor of their flocks. Where poultry is the main source of 
income, the conditions are likely to be those of congestion, 
and the methods of management intensive. If the land is 
good for general farming, it is so valuable that large numbers 
of birds must be kept on a limited area, and the labor min- 
imized, in order that a profit may be realized above the 
interest on the investment in the land. 

Poultry (with the exception of waterfowl), and particularly 
chickens and turkeys, are highly susceptible to disease. 
While chickens are gregarious, the natural covey is small, 
and the practice of congregating large numbers on a limited 
area permanently, renders each individual a menace to every 
other individual, makes sweeping epidemics possible, and 
renders it difficult, if not impossible, to keep the ranges and 
runs green. Ground so heavily stocked as to make it bare 
is a constant source of danger from disease infection. 

In how far general hygienic measures and highly vigorous 
stock may be developed that will offset these dangers is yet 
to be seen. These are problems of management and breeding 
worthy of investigators' best efforts. 

From the broad standpoint it is interesting to compare 
the fact that in 1910 there were in this country slightly over 
394 fowls per square mile of improved farm land, or at the 
rate of one fowl for each 1.6 acres. According to King, 1 
Japan supports 825 fowls per square mile of improved farm 
land which allows less than .8 of an acre per fowl. It would 
appear, therefore, that the poultry population of the United 
States may be at least doubled without serious danger of 
widely sweeping epidemics. 

As already noted, the one exception to the foregoing is 
duck farming. While the total production of ducks declined 

1 Farmers of Forty Centuries. 



48 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

39.3 per cent (see Table I) between 1900 and 1910, the farms 
devoting their entire space to duck culture increased in 
number and size. This was particularly true of New York, 
it being the only state showing an increase in the number of 
ducks at the taking of the last census. "There are many 
plants in the eastern states growing from 5000 to 10,000 or 
12,000 ducks a year, a number growing up to 20,000, and 
some with an annual production of over 50,000. " x This 
has been carried on on a relatively large scale on Long Island 
since prior to 1860. 

That this is possible is largely due to the comparatively 
phlegmatic temperament of ducks, so that they are not so 
quarrelsome as other sorts of poultry, coupled with their 
lack of susceptibility to disease arising from filth in their 
food or quarters. 

1 Robinson, Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture. 



CHAPTER II. 
BREEDS OF CHICKENS. 

Origin of the Domestic Fowl.— When man lived in a primi- 
tive state and was a savage, all animals and birds were also wild. 
The first step in advance came when he began to realize 
the value of wealth, to bring animals under control and 
develop flocks and herds. He was still a wanderer and a 
nomad. It was probably not until the necessity of co- 
operative effort in protecting his wealth against enemies, 
coupled with the increasing population, forced him to take 
up settled life in villages, that birds were domesticated. 
Poultry production was from the first, as it is now, essentially 
a home industry. 

While it appears likely that fowls were first captured for 
fighting purposes, and later domesticated for flesh and eggs, 
the earliest actual reference to poultry states that the 
Chinese Emperor Fu-Hsi, who lived from 3341 to 3227 B.C., 
taught his people to breed fowls. 1 Cock-fighting is still a 
favorite pastime among the native princes of India, from 
whence our domestic fowls originally came. 

So far as records show, fowls were taken eastward nearly a 
thousand years before they appeared in Europe. A Chinese 
encyclopedia, said to have been compiled 1400 years before 
Christ, makes mention of fowls as " creatures from the West." 
"The first actual reference in Western literature to the fowl 
occurs in the writings of Theognis and Aristophanes between 
400 and 500 B.C." 2 

Progenitors of the Breeds.— Darwin thought that all modern 
breeds of fowls were the offspring of a common ancestor. 
The differences noted between the phlegmatic Cochin and 
the sprightly Leghorn, he considered to have been brought 

! v. Fries, Abriss der Geschichte Chinas. 
2 Brown, Races of Domestic Poultry. 
4 (49) 



50 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

about by the conditions of domestication, particularly selec- 
tion and breeding. 

The bird which he selected as the probable ancestor of the 
hen was the species of jungle fowl known as Gallus bankiva 
which is still to be found in the jungles of Burmah, Northern 
India, the Philippine Islands, and several other countries. 

The bankiva male very closely resembles the black - 
breasted red game in color of plumage. The female has 
a salmon-colored breast, striped neck feathers, and stippled 

Fig. 8 




Jungle fowl (Gallus bankiva). (Courtesy of New York Zoological 
Gardens.) 

body feathers almost identical with those of the modern brown 
Leghorn female. In voice both male and female resemble 
the common barnyard fowl. The crow of the wild male, 
however, is not so prolonged as in the case of his domesti- 
cated brother. In action they are quite similar to the 
modern Leghorn. 

These birds cross readily with domestic breeds, producing 
fertile offspring and are themselves easily domesticated. 

While these considerations seem to point toward the 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 



51 



bankiva as one ancestor of the hen as we know her, they 
do not necessarily prove that it was the only ancestor ot the 
modern fowl nor that it was necessarily a progenitor ot all 
breeds of chickens. 



Fia. 9 




The Aseel or Malay fowl. (Courtesy of C. B. Davenport.) 



52 , POULTRY PRODUCTION 

As Brown 1 (whom I have largely followed) points out, 
there are excellent reasons for believing that such heavy, 
loose-feathered breeds as the Cochins and Brahmas came 
from an entirely different ancestry with which the Aseel 
or Malay fowl, domesticated over three thousand years ago, 
is the connecting link. In these breeds the long axis of the 
opening of the skull through which the spinal cord passes 
(occipital foramen) is perpendicular, while, in both the 
Leghorn and bankiva it is horizontal. This is mentioned 
as representative of several structural differences which 
could not have been selected for. It can be noted only 
by removing the head from the neck. 

Besides structural differences, there are also differences 
in habit which seem to indicate an ancestor far removed 
from the close-feathered, early-maturing, high-flying jungle 
fowl. 

The question of just what was the forerunner of our heavy 
breeds is an open one. While various suggestions have been 
made, none have gained general acceptance, and it seems 
probable that it is now extinct. 

Early American Poultry. — There is little information to be 
found concerning the status of poultry previous to the rise 
of the breeds in the middle of the last century. "With the 
exception of the turkey, 2 all our farm animals and poultry 
were imported from the Old World. The first to reach the 
New World were brought by Columbus on his second 
voyage in 1493.* * * Chickens, ducks, and geese are known 
to have been brought at that time." 3 According to Robinson, 4 
the ordinary native stocks of fowls, ducks, geese, and turkeys 
in America at the time of the general awakening of interest 
in improved poultry and for some years after, were, even 
when compared with the average mongrel stocks of today, 
small birds of distinctly inferior table qualities, and usually 
inferior also in egg production. This degeneracy of stock 
was due to the common practice of selecting for the table first. 

1 Races of Domestic Poultry. 

2 One breed of ducks, the Muscovy, probably originated in South America. 

3 Carver, Principles of Rural Economies. 

4 Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture. 



BREEDS OF CHKKENS 53 

That such practice, persistently followed, did not quickly run 
the stock out was due to these saving circumstances: (1) the 
natural tendency of the stock to improve under the very 
favorable conditions which small flocks at liberty on farms 
enjoyed, and (2) the occasional introduction of blood of 
improved native stock. 

Now and then a person particularly interested in poultry 
would breed his flock to one type or color, but the prevailing 
belief was that the best breeding was that which combined 
the greatest variety. 

Results of Domestication.— The general effects of domes- 
tication upon poultry have been four in number, namely: 
(1) increased size of body, (2) increased fecundity, (3) a 
tendency toward the suspension of the maternal instinct, 
and (4) a lowering of the vitality of the race. 

According to Brown, 1 "the jungle fowl of India is a small 
bird weighing about 3| pounds, but becomes heavier when 
brought under domestication, even though not selected for 
enhanced size. It does not develop much beyond six pounds, 
unless breeding with that object in view is adopted." 

The jungle fowl usually lays two clutches of eggs a season, 
totalling from twenty-two to twenty-six eggs. In all the 
modern breeds there is a marked increase in production, 
most breeds probably averaging close to a hundred eggs a 
year. The conditions which have been responsible for this 
have been (1) selection, (2) supplying stimulating feeds, (3) 
comfortable housing, and (4) the comparatively frequent 
gathering of eggs. Of these, the latter has had by far the 
greatest influence. Pearl 2 says in this connection: 

" Egg-laying in wild birds is simply one phase of a cyclical 
process. If the cycle is not disturbed in any way the egg 
production is simply the minimum required for the perpetua- 
tion of the race. If, however, the cycle is disturbed, as, for 
example, by the eggs being removed from the nest as fast 
as they are laid, a very considerable increase in the total 
number of eggs produced will result. This is, of course, 
what happens under domestication. . . . Austen shows 

1 Races of Domestic Poultry. 

2 Maine Bulletin No. 205. 



54 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

that whereas the wild Mallard duck in a state of nature 
lays only twelve to eighteen eggs in the year, it will lay from 
eighty to one hundred if they are removed as fast as laid 
and the bird kept confined in a pen at night. Hauke, 
by regularly removing the eggs, got forty-eight in succession 
from a common wryneck. Wenzel in the same way brought 
a house sparrow's productivity up to fifty-one eggs." 

It is probable, however, that the practice of frequent 
gathering has long since reached its limit of effectiveness and 
that further improvement will be reached through breeding, 
supplemented by proper housing and feeding. 

Increased fecundity seems to have caused longer periods of 
time to elapse between seasons of broodiness. In general, 
it may be said that the broodiness of a breed is in inverse 
proportion to its fecundity. With the Mediterranean breeds 
this is true to such an extent that the Leghorns are frequently 
termed a non-setting breed. 

The increasingly general use of the incubator is having 
the result of further discouraging the exercise of the maternal 
instinct. Where incubators are employed, the effort is likely 
to be to "break up" the broody hen with the hope that less 
time will be lost from laying. 

The vitality of the race has been lowered largely through 
combined poor selection and inbreeding. With the breeds, 
the practice has been to choose as breeders those birds which 
show the breed type or color characteristics to the greatest 
degree even though they are not physically fit. Combined 
with this has been the effect of inbreeding these individuals 
to fix their characteristics and the promiscuous inbreeding 
that often accompanies the mongrel flock. 

Classes, Breeds, and Varieties. — The breed is the basis of 
the classification of poultry. It may be defined as a group of 
domestic birds closely approaching a certain specific shape. 
The breed name is the one identifying any well defined and 
recognized type, such as Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, 
Leghorn, Brahma, or Runner, and the birds conforming 
closely to those types are said to be members of those respec- 
tive breeds. 

The breeds are for convenience both subdivided and 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 55 

grouped. The subdivisions are called varieties, while the 
groups are referred to as classes. There are two varietal 
distinctions, namely, comb shape and plumage color. Either 
one or both may be present. Thus, the Rose Comb Rhode 
Island Red differs from the Single Comb Rhode Island Red 
only in comb shape. The White Wyandotte differs from the 
Buff Wyandotte only in color, while the Single Comb White 
Leghorn differs from the Rose Comb Dark Brown Leghorn in 
both comb and color. They are members of the same breed, 
however, because they approach very closely the same type 
or shape. The common saying among poultrymen that 
"shape makes the breed, and color and comb the variety" 
is an accurate statement of the case. 

For the more common breeds of chickens the class grouping 
is based on similar general characteristics and place of origin. 
The Brahma, Cochin, and Langshan together comprise 
the Asiatic class. They have all come to us from or through 
Asia and are birds of large size, having feathered shanks and 
red earlobes, frequently becoming broody, and laying a dark 
brown egg. The Leghorns, Minorcas, Anconas, Andalusians, 
Spanish and Buttercups which comprise the Mediterranean 
class, all seem to have originated around the Mediterranean 
Sea. They are all nervous, active birds, stylish and sprightly 
in appearance, and somewhat lacking in the brooding instinct. 
They are layers of white eggs, comparatively small in size 
and carry white earlobes. 

The breeds which comprise the American class are the 
familiar Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, and Rhode Island 
Red, and the less familiar Java, Buckeye, Dominique and 
Fluff. These breeds were developed in America through a 
judicious blending of Asiatic and Mediterranean blood lines 
followed by rigid selection. In most characteristics they fall 
about half way between the two general types from which 
they arose. 

The grouping of breeds of chickens into classes may have 
no other basis than that of convenience or, as in the case 
of the "Miscellaneous" class, which is composed of three 
rather curious breeds, namely, Silkies, Sultans, and Frizzles, 
because they do not seem to fit anywhere else. 



56 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Turkeys, ducks, geese, and guinea fowl each comprise a 
class, the species being the basis of division. 

Purpose of Breeds. — The purpose of forming a new breed 
of poultry should be to secure a bird that will yield a product 
of maximum value at minimum cost. It should be a means 
to an end. 

Most of the breeds now popular for production purposes 
were originally brought forward to meet a real need. Many 
of the very numerous varieties that have appeared, often 
bearing no relation to the original members of the breed, 
have been brought forward for the purpose of "booming," 
to the financial advantage of their promoters. It has been 
too much a case of attractive color and markings rather than 
that of a more efficient food factory. 

The breeds thus tend to become an end, rather than 
a means, and the revision of a breed standard is too often 
based on the effort to secure a more attractive type than a 
more efficient one. 

Standard Breeds and Varieties.— Standard breeds and varie- 
ties are those which have been officially recognized by the 
American Poultry Association. Quoting from the Consti- 
tution of the American Poultry Association, "The proced- 
ure for the recognition of new breeds and varieties shall be 
as follows : 

"A petition for recognition must be presented to the 
American Poultry Association at an annual meeting at least 
one year before the annual meeting at which action upon the 
application of the breed or variety is taken. 

"The petition shall give: 

"(a) The name of the breed or variety. 

"(b) A description of the breed or variety and all ascertain- 
able facts regarding its origin and breeding; name and 
address of the originator and facts of an educational or 
historical nature, all of which must be preserved among the 
records of this Association. 

"(c) Certificates of not less than five members of. the 
Association who are breeders of the breed or variety and, who 
have bred it for two years or more, certifying that it produces 
not less than 50 per cent of specimens reasonably true to 
type or variety. 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 57 

" (d) ( "ertificates showing that two or more specimens of the 
breed or variety have been exhibited in each of the classes for 
single birds— cock, hen, cockerel and pullet— at a show held 
under American Poultry Association rules in the two annual 
show seasons next preceding the annual meeting at which 
the petition for recognition is presented; such affidavits to 
be signed by the Secretary of each such show and by a licensed 
judge who officiated at it. 

"(e) A standard for a breed or variety must be in the form 
used in The American Standard of Perfection; in case of a 
new variety of a Standard breed, conforming to the Standard 
for that breed; in case of a new breed, conforming to the gen- 
eral requirements of its class; and in case of a kind, not 
heretofore included in the Standard of Perfection, conforming 
to the general plan of description in the Standard, which 
standard is to be a provisional standard, subject to amend- 
ment by the petitioner or by the Association before the 
recognition of the breed or variety." 

Membership in a standard breed does not necessarily 
imply a common or even a similar ancestry with other 
members, though such is usually the case. It means only 
that the individual considered approaches the ideal type 
of the breed to a considerable degree. For instance, as 
Brown 1 states, the Buff Orpington is the result of the 
systematic crossing of the Golden Spangled Hamburg, Buff 
Cochin, and Dark Dorking, while another variety of the 
same breed, the Black Orpington, traces its decent from the 
Black Minorca, the Black Plymouth Rock (a non-standard 
variety), and clean-legged Langshans (which are disqualified 
by the Standard). 

Varieties may and often do have a common ancestry, as, 
for instance, the several Wyandottes. The Whites are muta- 
tions from the Silvers, and the Goldens count American 
Seabrights, the forerunners of the modern Silver Wyan- 
dottes, among their ancestors. 

"Standard Bred" or "Pure Bred." — In poultry terminology, 
"pure bred," as used in reference to farm animals, is, techni- 
cally at least, replaced by "standard bred." 

1 Races of Domestic Poultry. 



58 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



The term "pure bred" implies that a complete official 
record of the ancestry of the individual considered may be 
traced back to the individuals that are looked upon as the 
foundation animals of the breed, without admixture of alien 



Fig. 10 






Comb defects and disqualifications. 1, Thumb mark, a defect. 2, Blade 
follows neck too closely; point lops; defects. 3, Rose comb showing hollow 
center, a defect. 4, Side sprig, a disqualification. 5, Uneven serrations, 
a defect. 6, Twisted comb, a defect. (After Slocum.) 



blood, beyond a certain clearly defined and very small 
maximum, usually only in distant progenitors. 
_ The term "standard bred" implies that in breeding prac- 
tice only those individuals have been mated which conform 
closely to the "standard" description of the breed which 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 



59 



they represent, or which, as in double mating, will produce 
individuals which conform closely to that description. 

While technically there is no "pure-bred" poultry, in that 
the standard breeds cannot be demonstrated by official 
record and pedigree to have been bred pure for many succeed- 
ing generations, practically all the old-established breeds are 
as much "pure bred" as any breed of farm animal that is as 
many generations removed from its beginnings. 1 

American Standard of Perfection. — In poultry-breeding, 
the American Standard of Perfection takes the place which 
the herd book holds in the breeding of other farm animals. 
It safeguards the qualities of the breed, not by the exclusion 

Fig. 11 





1, Squirrel tail. 2, Wry tail. Both are disqualifications. (After Slocum.) 

of individuals known to carry "impure" blood, but by the 
disqualification 2 of such birds as have defects so serious as 
to seem to indicate the influence of impure breeding, or to 
be greatly to the detriment of the breed. 

This book, ordinarily spoken of as The Standard, is pub- 
lished by the American Poultry Association, and is revised 
and brought down to date once in eight years. It lists all 



'The term "thoroughbred" is frequently used in describing standard- 
bred poultry. "Thoroughbred" is a proper name and refers to a breed of 
horses. It is technically as inaccurate to speak of Thoroughbred chickens 
as it would be to refer to Plymouth Rock horses. 

2 Declaring them unworthy to be considered members of the breed. In 
the show room a disqualified bird is not allowed to compete for a premium. 



60 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

the recognized breeds and varieties, grouped in their proper 
classes, with their descriptions and disqualifications, and is 
the official guide by which all standard breeds are judged. 
Most of the well-known breeds and varieties are standard, 
Pit Games and Rhode Island Whites probably being the 
most brilliant exceptions among chickens. 

A complete list of chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese and 
guinea fowl as recognized by the American Poultry Associa- 
tion includes sixteen classes, sixty-five breeds and one hundred 
and fifty-seven varieties. Of these, twelve classes, forty-five 
breeds and one hundred and twenty-seven varieties are of 
chickens. There are eleven breeds of ducks, grouped in one 
class, and subdivided into fifteen varieties. The six breeds 
of geese are grouped as one class, and only one of the breeds 
has two varieties. Turkeys are all of the same shape and 
so all belong to the same breed, as well as to the same class. 
The breed is divided into six varieties on the basis of color. 
The guinea fowl has but a single breed and variety. Pigeons, 
pheasants, peafowl, swans, and ostriches are not dealt with 
by The Standard. 

Breed Standards. — Each description of a breed with its 
several varieties is termed a "breed standard." The Ameri- 
can Standard of Perfection is in reality a collection of breed 
standards. Each represents the composite ideal for the 
breed as formed from breeders' conceptions of usefulness 
and beauty. The use or harm of these standards depends 
upon the balance preserved between those characteristics 
that are of economic importance and those that are merely 
attractive. The standard of any breed that does not find 
beauty mainly in utility is a false standard and if persisted 
in will surely bring about the economic downfall of the breed. 
Strong breed characteristics, even though they add only 
to the attractiveness of the breed, and of themselves have 
no economic value, are assets to any individual and are of 
value to the producer. Utility points being equal, that 
individual which most strongly exhibits breed and variety 
characteristics is likely to be the individual whose pedigree, 
could it be examined, would show the most intelligent and 
careful breeding. 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 61 

Separate breed standards have been published for the 
Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes. 

Economic Value of Fancy Points. — Because there is little 
apparent value in some of the so-called "fancy points" is 
not just cause for condemning them wholesale. As a whole, 
producers have been benefited by the work of the fancier- 
breeder. Without it there would be no breeds, and no 
uniformity which is so vastly important with animals that 
are fed, or products that are sold, in numbers. 

Other things being equal, the bird that shows most plainly 
breed and varietal characteristics, provided these do not 
conflict with indications of constitutional vigor, should be 
the breeder selected. Strong breed characteristics may be 
considered as indicating close and careful breeding and to be 
a mark of prepotency. The great difficulty is the tendency 
to overwork them and make them a fad. Their purpose is 
to furnish uniformity to the carcass for market purposes 
and to indicate internal and functional uniformity for 
feeding. Such a purpose does not carry the necessity for 
the extremes of color now somewhat in fashion. If we may 
learn from other live stock, we find absolute color require- 
ments almost totally lacking. The lonely example of the 
Dutch-belted cattle among the dairy breeds is one where a 
color pattern requirement is associated with mediocrity of 
production. 

Classification of the Breeds. — There are several ways of 
classifying the breeds. For our immediate purpose, they 
should first of all be divided into (1) the productive and (2) 
the ornamental breeds. 

The productive breeds are those which are proving them- 
selves such efficient manufacturers of human food that it is 
profitable to breed them for that purpose. 

The ornamental or non-productive breeds are those which 
are inefficient as food producers but are bred more or less 
because of their general attractiveness or because of some 
peculiarity. 

It is also customary to classify the breeds according to 
the purpose for which their type appears most efficient 
and for which they are supposedly bred. Thus we have the 



62 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

so-called (1) meat breeds, (2) the general purpose or dual 
purpose breeds, and (3) the egg breeds. These breed groups 
conform very closely to the Asiatic, American and English, 
and Mediterranean classes repectively. Broadly speaking the 
latter classification is incorrect. Aside from the more or less 
isolated sections where special market conditions prevail, as 
in the South Shore soft roaster district of the extreme East, 
there are no chickens that are bred primarily for meat pro- 

Fig. 12 




Silver Spangled Hamburg, an ornamental breed. 

duction. The trend of production following the economic 
demand is toward eggs. The so-called meat breeds that lav 
comparatively few eggs, are surely and rather rapidly passing 
off the platform of economic importance. Good egg produc- 
tion (or its absence) has in the last analysis been the control- 
ling factor in the permanence or dwindling of the popularity 
in which the various breeds have been held. Meat is becom- 
ing more and more a by-product of egg-production. It is 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 



63 



an important by-product of the American breeds, and a 
relatively unimportant one of the Mediterranean varieties. 

The Asiatic Class. — The classes of fowls that have played 
the most important part in building up the present valued 
breeds commercially are the Asiatics and Mediterraneans. 

Of the Asiatics, the three recognized breeds are the Brahma, 
Cochin, and Langshan. All three were brought to this 
country by direct importation from China, coming from 
near the Brahmapootra River, from the city of Shanghai 
and from the district of Langshan respectively. 

The forerunners of the present Brahmas were first imported 
in 1846. They were nearly if not fully as large as the modern 
Brahmas, were less heavily feathered and very much better 
layers. What was until recently the highest authentic egg 
record was made by a Light Brahma pullet in 1872, when a 
bird owned by I. K. Felch, of Natick, Mass., laid 313 eggs in 
330 days. 

The Standard Classes, Breeds, and Varieties. 



Class. 



1. American 



Breed. 


Variety. 


1 


Barred 


White 


Plymouth Rock . 


Buff 

Silver Pencilled 




Partridge 


1 


Columbian 


Blue 




' Silver 




Golden 




White 


Wyandotte . . < 


Buff 
Black 




Partridge 




Silver Pencilled 




Columbian 


Java . < 


Black 
Mottled 


Dominique 


Rose Comb 


Rhode Island Red < 


Single Comb 
Rose Comb 


Buckeye . 


Pea Comb 


. Fluff .... 


White 



G4 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



The Standard Classes, Breeds, and Varieties (Continued). 
Class. Breed. Variety. 

/ Light 
\ Dark 

[Buff 
I Partridge 
' • | White 
[ Black 



II. Asiatic 



III. Mediterranean 



IV. English 



Brahma 



Cochin 



Langshan 



Leghorn 



Minorca . 

Spanish 
Andalusian 

Ancona 

I, Buttercup 

( 
Dorking 

Red Cap . 
Orpington 

Cornish 
Sussex 



Black 
White 

t^ & , /Single Comb Brown 
DarkJ 

J-. fe , i-Rose Comb Brown 

Single Comb White 
Rose Comb White 
Single Comb Buff 
Rose Comb Buff 
Single Comb Black 
Silver 
Red Pyle 

Single Comb Black 
Rose Comb Black 
Single Comb White 
Rose Comb White 
, Single Comb Buff 

White-faced Black 

Blue 

/ Single Comb 
\ Rose Comb 

Sicilian 
f White 

Silver Gray 

Colored 

Rose Comb 

Single Comb Buff 
Single Comb Black 
Single Comb White 
Single Comb Blue 

Dark 

White 

White Laced Red 

Red 
Speckled 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 



G5 



The Standard Classes, Breeds, and 



Class. 



V. Polish 



Breed. 



VI. Hambun 



VII. French 



VIII. Continental 



Polish 



IX. Game and 
Bantam 



Game 



X. Oriental 



Hamburg 



Houdan 

Crevecoeur 

La Fleche . 

[ Faverolles 

/Campine 
[Rhinelander 



Game 



Game Bantam 



Sumatra . 

Malay . 
Malay Bantam 



Varieties (Continued). 
Variety. 

White-crested Black 

Bearded Golden 

Bearded Silver 

Bearded White 

Buff Laced 

Non-bearded Golden 

Non-bearded Silver 

Non-bearded White 

Golden Spangled 

Silver Spangled 

Golden Pencilled 

Silver Pencilled 

White 

Black 
J Mottled 
\ White 

Black 

Black 

Salmon 

(Silver 
«j Golden 
[Black 

[ Black-breasted Red 
j Brown Red 

Golden Duckwing 
J Silver Duckwing 
1 Birchen 
I Red Pyle 

White 
( Black 

f Black-breasted Red 

I Brown Red 

I Golden Duckwing 

I Silver Duckwing 

I Birchen 

| Red Pyle 

| White 

{ Black 

Black 

Black-breasted Red 
Black-breasted Red 



66 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



The Standard Classes, Breeds, and Varieties (Continued). 
Class. Breed. 

Sebright . 



XI. Ornamental 



Bantam 



XII. Miscellaneous 



XIII. Duck 



Rose Comb 

Booted 

Brahma 

Cochin 
Japanese . 



Polish . . 

Mille Fleur 
Silkie 
Sultan 
Frizzle 

Pekin . . 
Aylesbury 
Rouen 
Cayuga 

Call . . 

East India 
Crested 

Muscovy . 

Runner 

Swedish 
Buff . . 
Crested 



Variety. 
/ Golden 
* \ Silver 



White 
Black 

White 

/ Light 
\ Dark 

["Buff 

J Partridge 

White 
( Black 

Black Tailed 
White 
Black 
[Gray 

( Bearded White 
I Buff Laced 
[ Non-bearded 

Booted 

White 

White 

Any Color 

White 
White 
Colored 
Black 

/Gray 
\ White 

Black 

White 

Colored 
White 

{Fawn and White 
White 
Pencilled 
Blue 
Buff 
White 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 



67 



The Standard Classes, Breeds, and Varieties (Continued). 



Class. 


Breed. 




Variety. 




' Toulouse 




Gray 




Embden 




White 




African 




Gray 


XIV. Goose . . . . 


Chinese 


• '■{ 


Brown 

White 




Wild or Canadian 


Gray 




Egyptian 




Colored 
' Bronze 
Narragansett 


XV. Turkey . . . 


Turkey 


. ■ 


White Holland 
Black 
Slate 
i Bourbon Red 


XVI. Guinea .... 


Guinea 




Pearl 




Fig. 


13 






Light Brahmas (Asiatic). 



The Cochins, then called Shanghais, were first imported 
in 1845 and, like the Brahmas, were less heavily feathered 
and much more fecund than now. Both of these breeds 
have been freely used in the formation of the American 
breeds now enjoying popular favor, and in spite of the 
general belief to the contrary, their blood in every case 
predominates over the Mediterranean. 

The Brahmas and Cochins, as described in the present 
Standard, are the result of selection. That the characters 
selected for have not been good economic qualities would 
seem to be indicated by their waning popularity on the farm. 
The points most valued have been color, and length and 
heaviness of feather. The selection for color has resulted 
in the development of varieties when none were needed. 



68 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



Length and heaviness of feather unfortunately appear to 
be correlated with late maturity, general sluggishness of 
temperament, and low egg production. Selection for these 
points has had the only result possible, the production of 
races that are fast being relegated to the position of orna- 
mental breeds. 

Fig. 14 




White Cochins (Asiatic). 

In deploring the craze for heavy feathering, Brown 1 
remarks that "Feather is the most expensive material to 
produce, and hence the birds are slower in growth, great 
eaters, and distinctly inferior in egg production to the 
original type." 

The Langshan was a later importation (1872). Like the 
Brahma and Cochin, its economic qualities have been injured 



1 Races of Domestic Poultry. 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 



69 



by adhering to a false standard. Though the craze for heavy 
feathering has not laid its hand heavily upon it, the eager- 
ness to make their type entirely distinct from that of the 
Orpington has led to the development of what Brown 1 has 
depicted as "a leggy monstrosity, stilty, often weak legged, 
but naturally heavier in bone and smaller in body than of 
yore." In America the type has not been developed to such 
an extreme as in England, from which view-point Brown 

Fig. 15 




Partridge Cochin, female (Asiatic). 

writes, but the development has assuredly not been toward 
the most desirable economic qualities. 

The characteristics which these breeds have in common are : 
relatively large size, phlegmatic disposition, late maturity, 
and feathered shanks. All three of them lay an egg that is 
tinted a rich deep brown, and are persistent setters. 

Mairs, 2 in tests embracing members of the Asiatic, Ameri- 



1 Races of Domestic Poultry. 

2 Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 87. 



70 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

can, and Mediterranean classes, found that the chicks of the 
large breeds consume more feed during the growing period 
than do the smaller ones. 

Mediterranean Class. — There are six breeds classified 
as Mediterranean because they originated near the shores of 
the Mediterranean Sea. These are:- Leghorns, Minorcas, 





Fig. 16 








^rtgcrs^^ 






''"'V.'' 




'''_■■■■■■ 


'J&SJKPf.fti. 



Dark Brahma, female (Asiatic). 

Spanish, Andalusians, Anconas and Buttercups. These 
breeds are at the opposite extreme from the Asiatic breeds in 
size, disposition, color of earlobe, earliness of maturity, 
setting tendency, and the number and color of eggs laid. 

The most familiar Mediterranean breeds are the Leghorn 
and Minorca. Of these the Leghorn is by far the most 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 



71 



popular, because of its superior reputation with regard to 
egg-producing qualities. 

The Leghorns, named for the town of Leghorn, Italy, 
were first introduced into America in 1835 and have under- 
gone a most gratifying improvement at the hands of American 
breeders. Whether through chance or design, they appear 



Fig. 17 




Brahma, male (Asiatic). 



to have been exceedingly fortunate in escaping the burden 
of harmful fancy fads. They are today enjoying an un- 
excelled popularity as egg producers. Of the several 
varieties, the Whites and Browns are most bred. 

Their sister breed, the Minorca, is named for one of the 
Balearic Islands, off the east coast of Spain. This breed 



72 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



was formerly credited with outlaying the Leghorns, where the 
actual pounds of eggs produced were considered, and is pos- 
sibly the immediate progenitor of our modern Plymouth Rock 
which is responsible for its present-day tendency toward high 
production. It is now dropping out of favor, largely because 
of the diminution of that same high-producing quality. 

Fig. 18 




Black Langshans (Asiatic). 



The reason usually ascribed for this retrogression is the 
fad for extreme size in comb. How or why extreme size in 
comb should militate against egg production is impossible 
to state. It may well be that the two characters are not 
necessarily opposed, but that in their enthusiasm for one 
character, breeders entirely lost sight of the other. Of the 
two varieties, White and Black, the Blacks predominate. 

Both the Leghorn and Minorca are sprightly and stylish 
in type, very nervous and active in disposition, early in 
maturity, non-setters and layers of large white eggs. In all 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 



Fig. 19 




Single Comb White Leghorn, male (Mediterranean). (Courtesy of Owen 
Farms and Reliable Poultry Journal.) 

Fig. 20 




Rose Comb White Minorca, male (Mediterranean). 



74 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



these characteristics, as in fecundity, the Leghorn is more 
extreme save in the largeness of the egg, for which the 
Minorca enjoys an excellent and well-deserved reputation. 

The Blue Andalusian is remarkable in that it never breeds 
true for color. The offspring of blue parents are, on the 
average, in the proportion of one black to two blue to one 
white, splashed with blue. The black offspring when mated 
together give only blacks. The white-splashed mated 

Ftg. 21 




Single Comb White Leghorn, female (Mediterranean). (Courtesy of Owen 
Farms and Reliable Poultry Journal.) 



together give all white-splashed. The blue offspring give 
blacks, blues and blue-splashed just as did their parents. 
Neither the blacks or white-splashed are recognized as 
standard varieties, though they breed true. 

It is probable that the Blue Orpingtons and Blue Plymouth 
Rocks trace their ancestry to the Blue Andalusian among 
others and their breeding behavior corresponds to that of the 
Andalusian. 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 



75 



The Buttercup, only recently admitted to The Standard 
is as yet comparatively little known. 

The American Class. — The American class as given in 
The Standard consists of seven breeds. These are Plymouth 
Rocks, Wyandottes, Javas, Dominiques, Rhode Island Reds, 
Buckeyes and Fluffs. Of these the Plymouth Rocks, Wyan- 
dottes, and Rhode Island Reds have found by far the most 
favor as farm fowls. 

Fig. 22 




Barred Plymouth Rock, male (American). 

As has been suggested, these American breeds were formed 
by a judicious blending of Asiatic and Mediterranean blood, 
in which the former predominates. The characteristics 
sought were hardiness of constitution, a larger frame than 
the Mediterranean commonly carried, a yellow skin and 
shank, a featherless shank, a greater activity and fecundity, 
and an earlier maturity than the Asiatics possessed. 

According to Brown, 1 "A fowl to which the name of 



1 Races of Domestic Poultry. 



76 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



Plymouth Rock was given was introduced about 1849 by 
Dr. J. C. Bennett . . . but soon passed into oblivion. 
The present stock has no relationship or connection with it. 




BREEDS OF CHICKENS 
Fig. 24 



l ( 



1P*V_ 


<4JS^ 




em* mmlm 










SwwSf 






f J|':-N 


' J^J 










. "h 



Silver Wyandottes, females (American). 
Fig. 25 





plpi 


ETii 








u 1 


. 



Farm flock of White Plymouth Rocks. (Courtesy F. E. Colburn. 



78 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



The first specimens leading to our present stock . . . 
were exhibited by Mr. D. A. Upham, of Wilsonville, 
Conn., at Worcester, Mass., in 1869. They were origi- 
nated by Mr. Joseph Spaulding, of Putnam, Conn. Much 
interest was manifested in them, and led to the steps 
which ultimated in the Essex strain. nine years later. From 



Fig. 26 




White Wyandotte, male (American). 

the first they 'caught on,' both with exhibitors and prac- 
tical poultry keepers. Something must be allowed for the 
fact that the breed was an undoubted American production. 
It is not too much to say that the great development of the 
poultry industry in America owed much to the breed." 

The foregoing applies to the Barred Plymouth Rocks, 
at first simply called "Plymouth Rocks." The Whites were 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 79 

not introduced until 1880 and the Buffs were recognized 
in 1893. The Partridge, Columbian, Silver Pencilled and 
Blue varieties were later additions. 

"Barred Rocks were introduced into Great Britain in 
1879 and speedily won a widespread popularity. For some 
years at exhibitions, classes of (Barred) Rocks were by far 
the largest. . . . But it was not only among exhibitors 
that the breed secured favor. Its undoubted economic 
qualities caused it to be spread very widely throughout 
the kingdom, and until the advent of the Buff Orpington its 
influence was more in evidence as a farmer's fowl than anv 
other." 1 

Fig. 27 




Single Comb Rhode Island Reds (American). (Courtesy of Kansas 
Experiment Station.) 

In America the Barred Plymouth Rock and its grades are 
in evidence on more farms than any other breed. This is 
particularly true in the central states. 

The original Wyandotte, the Silver, was the result of an 
attempt to secure an improved Cochin Bantam by crossing 
a Sebright Bantam with a Cochin hen. After further 
crossing, in which the Asiatic and Hamburg classes were 
used, the Silver Wyandottes were introduced in the late 
seventies. "The Goldens followed in the early eighties. 

i * Brown, Races of Domestic Poultry. 



80 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

The Whites were admitted to The Standard in 1888 and the 
Buffs and Partridge varieties in 1894." 1 The Silver Pencilled, 
Black, and Columbian varieties were later additions. 

The Rhode Island Reds came nearer to being originated 
as a farmer's breed than perhaps any other. According to 
Brown, 2 "This breed was the result of crossing by farmers 
living on the shores of Narragansett Bay in New England, 
who had no idea of producing a new breed, but of securing 
strong, vigorous, and profitable fowls." The foundation of 
this breed was laid sixty years ago, when some Red Cochins 
and Malays were brought to Westport, Mass., and Little 
Compton, R. I., by sailors. These were crossed with the 
native stock, and the resulting offspring seemed particularly 
suited to the prevailing conditions. 

Later other crosses were made, which probably included the 
Rose Comb Brown Leghorn and the Wyandotte. 

While fowls were exhibited under the name of Rhode 
Island Reds as early as 1879 or 1880, a standard was not 
adopted for them until 1901. There are but two varieties, 
the Single Comb and the Rose Comb. 

All American breeds lay a brown egg that is neither so 
dark nor so uniform in color as the egg of the Asiatics. 

These breeds have for the most part been singularly free 
from injurious fads, though the present breed standards 
are laying too much stress on non-economic points. The 
Plymouth Rock and Rhode Island Red bid fair to be victims 
of too much emphasis on absolute color requirements; while 
the Wyandottes, as a breed, have probably already suffered 
from the extreme short body and that roundness that calls 
rather loose and heavy feathering to its aid. 

Mairs 3 found, in slaughter tests, that birds of the American 
class gave a better dressing percentage than either the Asiatic 
or Mediterranean. 

The English Class. — The English class consists of five 
breeds, Dorking, Red Cap, Orpington, Cornish, and Sussex. 
Of these, the Orpingtons alone have obtained a position of 

1 Brown, Races of Domestic Poultry. 

2 Loc. cit. 

■ ! Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 87. 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 



81 



productive importance in America. Four varieties are 
recognized in this country: Buff, Black, White, and Blue. 
All have single combs. 

The Blacks were the original Orpingtons, being intro- 
duced by Mr. William Cook, of Orpington, Kent, in 1886. 
He also introduced the Buffs in 1894. According to Mr. 
Cook, the Blacks were secured by judicious crossing of Black 

Fig. 2S 




Black Orpington, female (English). 



Minorca, Black Plymouth Rock, and clean-legged Black 
Langshan blood, followed by careful and rigorous selection. 
The Buffs were the result of the crossing of Golden Spangled 
Hamburgs, Buff Cochins, and Dark Dorkings. As will be 
easily seen, there is no common or even similar ancestry 
with these two varieties of the Orpington breed. 

The Whites appeared later and were probably a "sport" 
from the Blacks. The Blues have only recently been recog- 
6 



82 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



nized in this country. The Buffs and Whites are by far the 
most popular in America. 

Aside from their averaging a pound heavier in weight, 
and carrying the white skin- and shanks so characteristic 
of English breeds, they are quite similar in economic quali- 
ties to our American breeds. In fact, they have been termed 
"the English edition of the Plymouth Rock." 

Choosing a Breed. — So far as the production of meat and 
eggs is concerned, it makes very little difference what shaped 
comb birds carry, or even what the variety color or breed 
type is. The real choice is not between breeds but between 
classes. If eggs are the product of prime interest a Medi- 
terranean breed will naturally be chosen. They are great 
rustlers, capable of keeping out of the way of chicken-eating 
hogs. They are somewhat difficult of control under general 
farm conditions, however, and do not furnish as attractive 
and sizable a carcass as some of the other classes. 

If in addition to securing a good number of eggs a con- 
venient and attractive source of fresh meat for home use is 
sought, one of the American or English breeds should prob- 
ably be chosen. The particular breed and variety chosen 
should depend upon the producer's preference. He will do 
best with the fowls he likes best. 

Table XIII. — Showing the Comparison of Production of the Pullets 
and Yearling Females of the American Breeds and White Leghorns 
at the Vineland (New Jersey) Laying Contest Expressed in Per 
Cent of Perfect Production. 





1916-1917. 


19 17-] 


918. 




Pullet Production 


Yearling P 


roduction 




American 


American 






breeds Leghorns, 


breeds 


Leghorns 


Month. 


per cent per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


November 


. . 20.6 34.0 


19.6 


6.4 


December 


. . 26.7 33.8 


14.0 


4.3 


January . 


. . 35.1 32.2 


16.9 


14.4 


February 


. . 43.5 43.2 


30.0 


36.5 


March 


. . .62.4 64 5 


55.9 


59.7 


April . 


. . 63.7 69.6 


55.7 


69.7 


May . 


. . 56.2 67.4 


42.0 


60.7 


June . 


. . 48.9 66.3 


39.4 


54.1 


July . 


. . 40.8 60.0 


34.8 


47.6 


August 


. . 33.8 48.0 


27.2 


35.8 


September 


. . 26.9 22.3 


26.8 


24.3 


October . 


. . 28.5 14.4 


13.6 


8.2 


Av. for the ye 


,ar .40.5 46.3 


31.3 


35.1 


Av. eggs per 


oird , 150 eggs 169 eggs 


1 1 7 eggs 


137 eggs 



BREEDS OF CHICKENS 83 

An indication of the average differences in egg production 
between the American breeds on the one hand and the White 
Leghorn on the other is given by Lewis, Hannas and Wene's 1 
report on the Vineland laving contest as shown in Table 
XIII. 

The popularity of the Asiatic breeds for farm production 
seems to be waning. This appears to be largely due to their 
low laying, late maturity and persistent broodiness. 

1 New Jersey Bulletin, No. 339. 



CHAPTER III. 
THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS. 

Definition of Breeding.— Poultry breeding is comprised of 
those operations which deal directly with reproducing and 
improving domestic poultry. It includes selection, mating, 
and incubation. For convenience and because artificial 
incubation has been so highly developed as to need treatment 
in a separate chapter, only those phases which have to do 
with selection and mating are discussed here. 

Physical Basis of Reproduction in the Female. — The organs 
of reproduction in the female fowl are the left ovary and the 
left oviduct. The right ovary and oviduct are formed 
at the same time as the organs on the left side, but 
degenerate during embryonic life, and persist, if at all, 
only as functionless rudiments. Lillie 1 suggests that this 
fact would appear to be correlated with the large size of the 
egg and the delicate nature of the shell, as there is not room 
for two eggs side by side in the lower part of the body cavity. 

The functioning ovary appears as a cluster of many 
spheres which vary in size from that of the normal egg-yolk 
down to the point where they are barely visible to the unaided 
eye. Each sphere is a more or less developed ovum or yolk 
and is joined to the main stalk of the ovary by a stalk of its 
own called a follicle. 

A continuation of this follicle completely surrounds the 
ovum as long as it remains connected with the ovary. It is 
the rupture of the follicle along a preformed line or band, 
called the stigma, and which marks the extremities of its 
vascular system, that allows the ripe ovum or fully grown 
yolk to escape into the oviduct. In counts of the total num- 
ber of ova and ruptured follicles visible to the unaided eye 

1 Development of the Chick. 
(84) 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 85 

in the ovaries of thirteen hens made by Curtis, 1 it was found 
that they varied in number from 914 to 3605. There did 
not appear to be any correlation between this total number 
of ova and ruptured follicles and the fowl's previous trap 
nest record. The ovary is situated to the left of the median 
line of the body just back of the lungs and below the anterior 
extremity of the left kidney. 

Fig. 29 




The ovary of a hen in full laying. (Courtesy of Raymond Pearl.) 

Curtis 2 has described the oviduct of the laying hen as 
being "a large, much coiled tube filling a large part of the 
left half of the abdominal cavity. It is suspended from the 
dorsal body wall and lies dorsal to the abdominal air sac. 
Its anterior end is expanded into a large funnel which is 
spread out beneath the ovary in such a way that the mouth 
of the tube faces the ovary. The mutual relations of the 
abdominal viscera are such as to virtually form a pocket in 
which the ovary lies. This walling off of the ovary is of 
such a character as to tend mechanically to direct detached 
ova to the mouth of the oviduct." There is no organic 

1 Maine Bulletin No. 205. s Ibid., No. 176. 



86 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



connection between the oviduct and the ovary, and Lillie 1 
adds that "The existence of double-yolked eggs renders 
it probable that the oviduct can pick up eggs that have 
escaped into the body cavity." 



Fie,. 30 




The oviduct of a hen in full laying, showing the funnel at the upper part 
of the photograph. (Courtesy of Raymond Pearl.) 

According to Surface 2 the oviduct is divided into five 
more or less clearly defined regions. Beginning at the end 
nearest the ovary, these are: (1) the funnel; (2) the albumen 
secreting portion; (3) the isthmus, which secretes the shell 
membrane; (4) the uterus or shell gland; (5) the vagina, 
which leads into the cloacal opening. 

Formation and Fertilization of the Egg. 3 — In the formation of 
an egg, the yolk comes to its full size in the ovary. (See 
Figure 82, page 177.) It starts as a tiny sphere not visible 
to the unaided eye. Its nucleus, which marks the point of 
the development of the embryo chick after fertilization, is in 



1 Development of the Chick. 2 Maine Bulletin No. 206. 

3 Lillie' s description in "The Development of the Chick" is followed. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 87 

approximately a central position. While the nucleus is still 
at the center a deposit of extremely fine granules of yolk is 
formed around it and gradually extends toward the cell wall. 
This deposit is what is later recognized as the latebra of the 
flask-shaped mass of white yolk. 

When the ovum has reached a size approximating 0.66 
mm., the nucleus migrates to a position at the end of the flask- 
shaped formation and just under the vitelline membrane. 

Successive layers of yellow yolk are deposited around the 
central mass of white yolk by the activity of the peripheral 
layer of protoplasm. These layers are somewhat correlated 
with the periodic daily physiologic rhythm of the vitality 
of the hen. 

When the yolk comes to full size, it escapes from the ovary 
by the rupture of the follicle along the stigma, into the funnel 
of the oviduct, which, as Lillie 1 states, "swallows it, so to 
speak, and it passes on by peristaltic contraction of the ovi- 
duct. The escape of the ovum from the follicle is known as 
the process of ovulation." 

"The stimuli which initiate the peristaltic action of the 
oviduct and attract the funnel to the mature follicle are 
among the unsolved problems of physiology. The yolk is 
already oriented in the follicle before the funnel encloses it." 2 
" Internal pressure due to continued yolk formation is prob- 
ably the most important factor in the normal rupture of the 
follicle, since closing the funnel or removing the duct appar- 
ently does not greatly delay ovulation." 3 

Fertilization takes place almost immediately after ovula- 
tion, the spermatozoa having made their way through the 
entire length of the oviduct. Lillie 4 states that " The ovum 
is surrounded immediately after ovulation ... by a 
fluid containing spermatozoa in suspension. The entrance 
of several spermatozoa (into the ovum) seems to be char- 
acteristic of vertebrates with large ova." 

Only one of these (spermatozoa) serves as a functional 
sperm nucleus: the remainder or supernumerary sperm 

1 Oppos. cit. 2 Curtis, Maine Bulletin No. 228. 

8 Pearl and Curtis, Journal Experimental Zoology, vol. vii, No. 3. 
4 Oppos. cit. 



8S POULTRY PRODUCTION 

nuclei migrate as though repelled from the center toward 
the margin. 

"After entering the infundibulum (funnel) the yolk remains 
in the so-called albumen portion of the oviduct about three 
hours and in this time acquires only about 40 to 50 per cent 
by weight of its total albumen. During its sojourn in the 
albumen portion of the duct the egg acquires the chalazse 
and chalaziferous layer, the dense albumen layer, and (if 
such a layer exists as a distinct entity, about which there is 
some doubt) the inner fluid layer of albumen." 1 

This albumen has a decided bactericidal property which is 
highly important. "Without this defensive agency the 
oviduct and therefore the eggs would be very liable to infec- 
tion from microorganisms by way of the cloaca. Such an 
infection would be very likely to greatly decrease the hatching 
power of the eggs." 2 

"The contents of normal fresh eggs are as a rule sterile. 
It is quite probable that an egg yolk may become invaded 
before it leaves the ovary; but this is apparently an uncom- 
mon occurrence, except when the ovary is infected with the 
organism of bacillary white diarrhea. Little if any infection 
takes place in the oviduct while the white and shell are being 
deposited." 3 

By the peristaltic contractions of the oviduct just back 
of it, the egg is forced through the remaining sections of the 
oviduct. "Upon entering the isthmus, in passing through 
which portion of the duct something under an hour's time 
is occupied instead of three hours, as has been previously 
maintained, the egg receives its shell membranes by a pro- 
cess of discrete deposition. At the same time, and during 
the sojourn of the egg in the uterus, it receives its outer layer 
of fluid or thin albumen, which is by weight 50 to 60 per cent 
of the total albumen. This thin albumen is taken by osmosis 
through the shell membranes already formed. When it 
enters the egg in this way it is much more fluid than the thin 
albumen of the laid egg. The fluid albumen added in this 

1 Pearl and Curtis, Journal Experimental Zoology, vol. xii, No. 1. 

2 Lillie. The Development of the Chick. 

3 Rettger, Storrs Bulletin No. 75. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 89 

way dissolves some of the denser albumen already present, 
and so brings about the dilution of the latter in some degree. 
At the same time by this process of diffusion, the fluid layer 
is rendered more dense, coming finally to the consistency of 
the thin layer of the laid egg. The thin albumen layer, how- 
ever, does not owe its existence in any sense to this dilution 
factor, but to a definite secretion of a thin albumen by the 
glands of the isthmus and uterus. The addition of albumen 
to the egg is completed only after it has been in the uterus 
from five to seven hours. 

" Before the acquisition of albumen by the egg is completed 
a fairly considerable amount of shell substance has been 
deposited on the shell membranes. For the completion of the 
shell and the laying of the egg from twelve to sixteen, or 
exceptionally even more, hours are required." 1 

It is. while the egg is in the uterus that it is possible to 
locate it by touch. At the Utah Station 2 this fact has been 
made use of in keeping egg records except during the breeding 
season when pedigreeing is being done. It was found that 
the whole flock could be handled early each morning and the 
individual hens which would lay that day, determined with 
accuracy. 

Curtis 3 has shown that the larger an egg, the greater is 
the mechanical stimulation upon the uterus and the heavier is 
the shell. 

Infertile Eggs. — The discharging of the yolk or ovum from 
the ovary of the hen is analogous to ovulation in other farm 
animals. 

With the larger animals, if ovulation is not followed by 
mating, there is no further development. With birds, 
however, whether the ovum is fertilized in the funnel of the 
oviduct by union with the male element or not, its further 
history within the hen's body is the same and an apparently 
normal egg is laid. If the hen has not been previously mated 
and there are no spermatozoa in the oviduct to unite with 
the ovum, the egg is called infertile and will not start to 

1 Pearl and Curtis, Journal Experimental Zoology, vol. xii, No. 1 

2 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Poul. Husb., vol. iii, No. 9. 

3 Maine Bulletin No. 228. 



90 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

develop when placed in an incubating temperature. Such an 
egg is the equal of a fertile egg for food purposes, and very 
much superior for preserving, shipping, or storage purposes. 

Freak Eggs. — There are various kinds of abnormal eggs 
which appear in flocks of any size with more or less frequency. 
The most common is the double-yolked egg, which is caused 
in two ways: two yolks may develop in one follicle, and 
escape, and be taken up by the oviduct at the same time and 
wrapped in the same albumen, shell membranes, and shell. 
A second way is by the premature rupture of a follicle, 
which allows the yolk to escape into the body cavity. This 
yolk is sought out and taken up by the oviduct, often just 
before or after another yolk is received from the ovary. 
These two yolks then travel down the oviduct together, as 
in the first case. In either case one or both of the yolks may 
be fertile and develop chicks, though these rarely hatch. 

The so-called soft-shelled egg is usually one that has no 
shell. This may be caused by the shell gland failing to func- 
tion or by the peristaltic constrictions becoming so violent 
as to hurry the egg to exclusion, without allowing time for 
the secretion and deposition of the shell. 

When the shell material is first applied to the egg it is 
plastic and the oviduct on the outside and the egg on the 
inside together constitute a mould which determines the 
shape of the egg. For some reason that part of the oviduct 
which immediately surrounds the egg sometimes becomes 
constricted, taking on what is termed an hour-glass form. 
The result is that as the shell material hardens it takes the 
same form, becoming what is called, for want of a better 
name, a "dumb-bell" egg. 

Of quite common occurrence are the very tiny eggs which 
have no yolk. These are caused by some foreign substance, 
as a clot of blood or a piece of detached membrane, finding 
its way into the oviduct and travelling down in the same way 
that an egg does. As it comes to the albumen secreting 
portion, the gland is stimulated and secretion occurs, much 
as though a yolk were present. After being surrounded by 
albumen the substance has the same history as a normal egg. 

It sometimes occurs that what appears to be a double- 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 91 

yolked egg is found upon being opened to contain another 
egg in every way normal, instead of the expected two yolks. 
For some reason, after the egg is completed and is ready for 
laying, the constrictions that usually take place behind 
it, forcing it toward exclusion, become reversed and take 
place in front of the egg, forcing it back into the albumin 
secreting portion again. This causes a new secretion of 
albumin which surrounds the shell, and, normal action 
restored, the egg again travels down the oviduct, is sur- 
rounded by a second pair of membranes and another 
shell. 

The so-called "liver spots" or "blood spots" in eggs are 
due to the rupture of bloodvessels in the follicle or walls 
of the oviduct or by the sloughing off of tiny pieces of mem- 
brane. The clot simply becomes surrounded along with the 
yolk. The membrane is usually suspended in the albumen. 

Further Functions of the Sex Glands.— The primary function 
of the sex glands (ovary and testis) is the production of ova 
and spermatozoa. They have however, certain very import- 
ant secondary functions. The removal of the testes from the 
male known as caponizing, which has been practiced commer- 
cially for centuries, increases the size of the bird by growth 
and the laying on of fat, and causes the flesh to remain tender 
as in a young bird, largely through the failure to develop as 
much connective tissue as is normal in a mature male. The 
neck, saddle, and tail feathers usually grow noticeably 
longer than in the normal male. The comb and wattles fail 
to develop, remaining in an infantile condition. 

By way of summary, it may be said that the presence of the 
testes limits body size, the laying on of fat and feather 
length, while stimulating the development of the comb. 
While the body size and the feather development in some 
sections of the male are greater than in the female, they are 
not so great as in the castrated male. 

Goodale 1 has shown in a careful series of investigations 
that the difference in the length and shape of plumage 
between the male and female is largely due to the influence 

1 Carnegie Institute of Washington, Pub. 243. 



92 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



of the ovary. When the ovary is entirely removed the pullet 
grows the plumage of a cockerel (or more accurately, of a 
capon) with a typical hackle and saddle, and a long tail with 
sickle feathers. He has also shown that after successful 
ovarectomy the demurely colored Rouen duck takes on the 
brilliant colors of the male following the next molt. 

Cole and Lippincott 1 have shown that a hen whose ovary 
is destroyed by a tumor grows plumage which in shape is 



Fig. 31 




A Barred Plymouth Rock hen which developed saddle, sickle and hackle 
feathers typical of a male or capon, as the result of the ovary being destroyed 
by a tumor. (After Cole and Lippincott.) 

quite typical of a male or capon (see Figures 31 and 32). 
They showed further that by introducing into the body 
cavity pieces of ovary from another female, feathers typical 
of a normal female could later be grown on the same bird. 

Goodale 2 went even further and quite completely feminized 
cockerels so far as appearance is concerned, by castrating 
them and engrafting ovaries. The ovary also seems to inhibit 

1 Biological Bulletin, vol. xxxvi, No. 3. 

2 Genetics, vol. hi, No. 3. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



93 



growth somewhat and to stimulate comb development, 
though to a less extent than the testis. 

It appears from the evidence of Boring and Pearl 1 coupled 
with that of Morgan, 2 and Boring and Morgan, 3 that the 
presence of the groups of yellow cells found in the ovaries 
of domestic birds (each known as a corpus luteum), may be 

Fig. 32 




The saddle section of the female shown in Figure 31 after pieces of ovary 
from another individual had been engrafted. The old "male-shaped" 
feathers are shown at the left. On the right are seen the "hen-shaped" 
feathers which grew after the ovary was introduced, the old feathers having 
been pulled out. (After Cole and Lippincott.) 



responsible for the suppression of male plumage in the 
female. 

It is a matter of common knowledge among poultrymen 
that Sebright Bantam males do not have ordinary hackle or 

1 American Journal of Anatomy, vol. xxiii, No. 1, and Journal of Experi- 
mental Zoology, vol. xxv, No. 1. 

'-' Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine 
vol. xv, pp. 3-4. 

3 Journal of General Physiology, vol. i, No. 1. 



94 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



saddle feathers or long tails with sickle feathers. Their 
plumage is so closely similar to that of the female that they 
are referred to as hen feathered males. Morgan has shown 
that if Sebright males are castrated, they grow the long 
hackle, saddle and tail feathers which are typical of capons 
of breeds in wh ch the male is not hen feathered. Boring 
and Morgan 1 have shown that the testes of Sebright males 
carry lutear cells which are identical with those found in the 
corpus luteum of the ovary of the hen by Boring and Pearl. 
It appears probable that the agent of suppression is a secre- 
tion from these lutear cells. 



Fig. 




Showing how bacillary white diarrhea perpetuates itself in the breeding stock. 

Inheritance of Disease. — While the statement that infectious 
poultry diseases are heritable is technically incorrect, practi- 
cally it has a substantial basis in fact. The most conspicuous 
example is found in the life history of the organism causing 
contagious white diarrhea. When a female chick is infected 
with the disease and makes a recovery it becomes a bacillus 
carrier. According to Rettger, Kirkpatrick, and Jones, 2 



1 Journal of General Physiology, vol. i, No. 1. 
3 Storr's Bulletin No. 77. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 95 

the organisms may never be entirely eliminated from the 
pullet's body, and as she develops, some of them migrate to 
her ovary. They may also reach the ovary from the ali- 
mentary tract when they are taken in with food through 
the mouth. They there enter the developing yolks and 
remain until the yolks are discharged from the ovary, fer- 
tilized, and laid. If such eggs are incubated and hatched 
the organisms are very likely to find their way into the 
alimentary tract of the chick during embryonic life and 
multiply to such an extent that the chick will have contracted 
the disease before exclusion from the shell. Such a condition 
corresponds somewhat to intra-uterine infection in mammals. 
It might perhaps be properly termed intra-ovarian infection. 
The point is, however, that while technically the young 
creature contracts the disease by infection from the mother, 
practically the disease is transmitted from mother to the 
food-supply of the potential offspring before laying or even 
ovulation occurs. These same investigators found that 
"more than 25 per cent of the pullets that were artificially 
infected as chicks became permanent bacillus carriers." 

The same condition might be found in the case of any 
infectious disease that involves the ovary or oviduct. Thus 
if a hen with a tubercular oviduct should lay, the likelihood 
is that chicks hatched from her eggs would be tubercular. 
This does not often occur, because a bird with a diseased 
oviduct seldom lays. 

The Male Generative Organs and Caponizing. — The essential 
generative organs of the male bird are the testicle, the tube 
leading from it to the cloaca, and the small papilla placed 
near the margin of the cloacal opening and serving as an 
organ of copulation. Each of the three organs is paired. 
The exact location of the testicles is of interest in connection 
with the reproductive apparatus of the male, because of 
their importance with reference to castrating or caponizing. 
They are placed on either side of the median line of the body 
just back of the lungs and below the anterior extremity of 
the kidneys. They are oval in shape, and at the time most 
favorable for caponizing are the size of a small pea. Ulti- 
mately they become so large as to inhibit their removal 



96 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



between the ribs. They are reached in caponizing by an 
incision between the last two ribs. 
The object of castration in chickens is much the same as 
other animals. Besides the effects already noted it 



m 



renders them more tractable in disposition, they are easier 
keepers and make more economical gains. Where it is not 
desirable to market the surplus cockerels as broilers, caponiz- 
ing admits of rearing the males with the pullets without 
danger of injury to the latter, and the constant annoyance 
which greatly retards their development. 



Fig. 34 




The right size for caponizing. (Courtesy of Mr. George Beuoy.) 

Making Capons. 1 — " Caponizing is a simple operation. Any 
careful person can soon learn to do it successfully. The 
fact that a bird's testicles are hidden away inside the body 
has caused most people to suppose that the operation of 
removing them is at once difficult and dangerous. While 
the percentage of loss is somewhat larger than results from 
the castration of the larger animals, it need not run much, 
if any, above 5 per cent for the beginner. One of the reasons 
why the number is as large as it is, may be that the bird 



1 Lippincott, Kansas Circular No. 27. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



97 



must be older, comparatively, than other farm animals 
before the operation can be undertaken. The birds that are 
killed die a quick and painless death by bleeding. They 
are not a total loss, as they are perfectly wholesome for food. 
"It is difficult to state the exact size or age at which a 
cockerel may be most successfully operated upon, as different 
birds develop differently. As a starting-point, however, 

Fig. 35 



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,y*Jg 




1 

1 1 




2 ■*+ 

■ 


\ n 


w 


* 





A home-made caponizing table. (Courtesy of Mr. George Beuoy.) 

the beginner will be safe in using birds weighing between 
one and a half and two pounds if they are of the Plymouth 
Rock, Rhode Island Red, Wyandotte, or Orpington breeds. 
Leghorns weighing a pound may be used also. Later, as 
one becomes more familiar with the matter, the birds will 
be selected by their 'look' rather than by weight or age. 
The cockerel shown in Figure 34 is just ready. The proper 
time is just before he begins to make comb, when the organs 
are about the size of a small navy bean. 
7 



98 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



"The tools needed are four. in number, and may be pur- 
chased from any poultry supply house or veterinary instru- 
ment company at from $3 to $6 per set. A sharp knife is 
necessary for making the incision. A pocket-knife will do 
if it is sharp. A spreader is needed to keep the incision open 




Cockerel in place on caponizing table. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



while working. A probe that is blunt at one end and has 
a sharp bent point at the other is used in pushing the intes- 
tines aside to expose the organs and in tearing the thin 
membranes that surround the body cavity. And finally, 
there must be an instrument for removing the testicles. 
There are several different instruments made for this purpose, 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



99 



and it is largely a matter of preference which is used. The 
ones used in these illustrations are called the spoon forceps. 



Fig. 37 




Locating the last two ribs and making the incision. (Courtesy of Kansas 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



" Where one is making a business of operating it is a good 
thing to have a special table that can be tipped toward the 
light, as in Figures 36 and 37. For home use a barrel will do 
nearly as well, as shown in Figure 35. In either case, what is 



100 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



wanted is something that will hold the bird firmly and well 
stretched out, at a convenient height. The bird is usually 



Fig. 38 




Inserting the spreaders. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment 

Station.) 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 101 

pinioned by looping weighted cords over the legs and wings, 
as shown in the illustrations. Previous to the operation the 
only preparation necessary is to keep the bird from food and 
water for thirty-six hours. This will allow the intestines 
to empty and subside, making the operation much easier 
and less dangerous. There will be less bleeding if water is 
also withheld. This must not be overlooked. 

Fig. 39 




Tearing away the membranes. (Courtesy of Kansas Agrieultural 
Experiment Station.) 

"The operation may be performed from either side. A 
few feathers should be plucked just in front of the thigh, 
thus laying bare a small space just over the last rib. The 
surrounding feathers should be moistened to make them lie 
down and not interfere during the operation. The last 
two ribs should now be located by the forefinger of the left 
hand, as shown in Figure 37. Having located the ribs, pull 
the skin as far toward the thigh or hip as possible. (This is 
done so that when the operation is over the incision in the 
skin will not be over the incision in the flesh, as shown in 



102 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



Figure 42.) Then pinch the skin with the thumb and fore- 
finger to drive out as much blood as possible. Now make the 
incision, being careful to follow the space between the ribs. 
If the bird has been properly starved, there will be no danger 
of cutting the intestines. The first incision need not be over 
a half-inch long. Then take the spreaders and insert as is 
being done in Figure 38. Be sure to see that each hook of the 
spreader is against a rib. Spread the incision as far as possible 



Fig. 40 




Testicle shown in place between jaws of the spreader. (Courtesy of Kansas 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

without tearing the flesh. Then follow up between the ribs 
with the knife, lengthening the incision until the spreaders 
may be opened to their limit, as shown in Figure 39. Then 
with the hooked end of the probe tear away the thin, papery 
membranes that cover the intestines, as shown in Figure 39. 
" When this has been done and the intestines pushed aside, 
the testicle will be in plain sight. In a bird of the proper age 
it will be a rich creamy yellow and about the size and shape 
of a small bean. In very young chicks whose sex can just 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 103 

Fig. 41 



j, 1 ^ ^,v V. 










^J 




^as^MJI 


W •■fc^>%\' K "fW^r^ 


^ 




- 


H» ImKrv ■ '--. 






^fjiJa. VPal^^ 


^» *c 











Removing the testicle. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment 
Station.) 

Fig. 42 




After the operation. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



104 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



be told it is scarcely larger than a grain of wheat. The testicle 
may be seen in position in Figure 40. It is almost between 
the jaws of the spreader and is glistening in the sunlight. 

"Just above it the kidneys are located, but cannot be 
seen in the picture. Passing over the kidneys is a large 
bloodvessel, which constitutes practically the only source 
of danger during the operation. If this vessel is ruptured 
the bird will bleed to death almost before it can be taken 

from the table. 

Fig. 43 




A flock of young capons. 



(Courtesy of Kansas A 
Station.) 



;ricultural Experiment 



" In Figure 41 the spoon forceps are grasping the testicle, 
which is still in place. The care with which the operator 
grasps the organ without also grasping the bloodvessel, or 
the tissues surrounding it, constitutes the whole trick of the 
operation. Having grasped the testicle, twist the forceps 
around a couple of times and pull them out quickly. Remove 
the spreaders and allow the skin to cover the opening between 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 105 

the ribs, as iii Figure 42. In ten days there will be nothing 
left but a shiny scar. 

"It is customary to remove both testicles from one side. 
In that case it is better to remove the lower one first. Some- 
times there is a little bleeding which would hide the lower 
one if the upper one was removed first. Beginners, however, 
will do well to make two incisions, one on each side, operat- 
ing at first on a dead bird. After doing this successfully 
several times, one may tear away the membranes enough 
to see the second testicle and remove both testicles through 
the same incision. In fact, one may become so proficient 
that he can grasp both organs at once and remove them 
together. 

Fig. 44 




White Plymouth Rock capons. (Courtesy of Purdue Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 

"After the operation, the birds should be placed in a yard 
by themselves and fed on soft food for three or four days. 
After that time give them their regular rations. At the end 
of a week they may be turned in with the other chickens. 
A few of them will bloat during the first w r eek. This is not 
serious, and is remedied by pricking the skin with a coarse 
needle or with the little blade of a pocket-knife." 

Spaying of Pullets. — The spaying of pullets is not practised 
for two reasons: they are more profitable as egg producers 
than as meat producers, and there w r ould be no economic 
gain in performing the operation. A further and more 



106 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

decisive reason is that because of surgical difficulties it is 
practically impossible to perform the operation successfully. 
It has been successfully accomplished a comparatively few 
times by trained investigators. Removing the ovary in its 
entirety usually results in the rupture of a large bloodvessel 
lying at the base of the main stock, which allows sufficient 
hemorrhage to cause death. If the organ is not removed 
perfectly clean, it has the power to regenerate from the 
remaining tissue and so defeat the purpose of the operation. 

Time Elapsing Between Mating and Fertility. — Pearl and 
Surface 1 make note of the fact that in "Some experiments 
carried out by H. J. Odam of the period elapsing between 
mating and fertility in one case a chick was produced from 
an egg laid seventy-two hours after mating." 

Waite 2 found that where twenty Single Comb White 
Leghorn pullets were mated, 50 per cent of the eggs laid 
on the third day (less than fifty-four hours after mating) 
were fertile and 70 per cent were fertile on the fourth day. 

In mating eighteen Rhode Island Red pullets and one 
White Plymouth Rock cockerel, he found that the four 
eggs laid on the seventh day were all fertile. In still another 
test with these same breeds, eight eggs laid on the eighth 
day were all fertile. 

In a test with Single Comb White Leghorn hens mated to 
cockerels, carried out by Townsley and reported by Philips, 3 
the first fertile egg was gathered twenty-three hours after a 
single mating. The detailed data are shown in Table XIV. 
It will be noted that the eggs were not 100 per cent infertile 
until the sixteenth day after the mating occurred. 

Judging from common experience in addition to the fore- 
going, it seems safe to state that in practice it will be found 
that eggs laid by vigorous hens will usually be fairly fertile 
in six days in the case of Mediterranean breeds, and eight 
to ten days in the case of the American breeds, while two 
weeks is necessary in the case of pullets, assuming in each 
case that the male is vigorous and active. 

1 Maine Bulletin No. 168. 

2 Maryland Bulletin No. 157. 

3 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Poul. Husb., vol. iv, No. 5. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 107 

Cessation of Fertility. — In experiments with twenty Single 
Comb White Leghorn hens, Waite 1 found that fertility 
held up well for eleven days, and one egg was found to be 
fertile after the male bird had been removed for twenty 
days. Bittenbender 2 reports a Barred Plymouth Rock hen 
that produced a fertile egg seventeen days after the removal 
of the male. Townsley and Philips results are shown in 
Table XIV. 

Sherwood 3 reports one Barred Plymouth Rock hen that 
produced one fertile egg on the twentieth day after the mating 
was broken up; four White Leghorn pullets that produced 
fertile eggs on the nineteenth day; two Leghorn hens that 
laid fertile eggs on the eighteenth day after the male bird 
was removed. He found that the fertility held up well with 
the Plymouth Rock hens for twelve days, while the Leghorn 
pullets' eggs decreased markedly in fertility on the tenth 
day, as did also those of the Leghorn hens. 

After the end of the third week, according to Lillie, 4 the 
vitality of the spermatozoa is reduced. Eggs laid during 
the fourth and fifth week after the removal of the male 
may exhibit an abnormal cell division, which soon ceases. 

In practice a period of at least three weeks is necessary 
to rid the oviduct of active spermatozoa and insure a cessa- 
tion of the influence of a previous mating. 

Influence of Previous Impregnation. — The fact that eggs 
remain fertile for days and even weeks after the removal 
of the male, combined with other circumstances, has led 
to a somewhat common belief that the influence of an impreg- 
nation is often permanent. A common illustration is found 
in the idea that if a pure white hen is once mated with a pure 
black male the offspring of a subsequent mating with a pure 
white male, which may occur the following season or even 
two or three years later, are likely to show black feathers, 
as the result of the previous mating with the black male. 

As a matter of fact, black feathers are a frequent occur- 
rence in the offspring of pure white birds that have never 

1 Maryland Bulletin No. 157. 

2 Unpublished data, Iowa State College. 

3 Ibid., Ohio Experiment Station. 

4 Development of the Chick. 



108 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



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THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 109 

been mated with anything but pure white birds. With 
other animals all efforts to secure a permanent influence 
of any sort from a previous impregnation have uniformly 
failed. There is no reason to believe the results would be 
different with fowls. 

Maternal Impressions. — In chickens the claims of prenatal 
influence or the registering of maternal impressions are 
largely confined to color. One not infrequently hears the 
claim that yellow-painted buildings about the premises 
where the fowls spend much ojr- their time tends to induce 
creaminess or brassiness in the feathers. 

Experimentally, it has been; - impossible to produce such 
effects. Brassiness seems to appear £ftily when fowls are 
allowed to be in the sun. It is p"o§£ibly a sort of sunburn. 
Creaminess is usually the result ofr&il in the feathers and may 
be increased by feeding yellow corn or green feed freely. 

In this connection it should jfee clearly understood that 
while maternal impressions do not appear in the offspring 
in kind, both the maternal ancf paternal vigor and physical 
thrift have very much to do -with thrifty offspring. 

BREEDING METHODS. 

In general, breeding is carried on in the hope of securing 
improvement in one of three ways: (1) by transferring the 
valuable characteristics of an improved breed to common 
stock; (2) by impressing the excellencies of superior indi- 
viduals on other families within the breed, so as to produce 
a higher average excellence in them than on the average is 
possessed by the breed itself; (3) by securing a new associa- 
tion of characteristics, that is, producing a new breed. The 
first is the way of the producer and the method is grading. 
The second is that of the breeder and the method is "line 
breeding." With the third, the method is cross-breeding. 

Grading. — By grading is meant the practice of mating 
standard-bred males with mongrel or relatively unimproved 
females. Technically speaking, the reciprocal cross is also 
grading, but, practically, it need not be considered. 

Grading is the method of the producer because it lends 
itself most readily to his purpose of securing "as many off- 



110 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

spring as possible, as good as possible, and at the least cost." 
It is not only the easiest and cheapest form of breeding, but 
also produces the most rapid improvement. For market 
purposes, grades are often the equal of standard-breds. 
For breeding purposes, grade males are usually worthless. 

The theoretical rapidity with which the characteristics 
of an improved breed are transmitted to progeny out of 
the mongrels is illustrated in Figure 45. The percentages 
given in each generation represent the hereditary constitu- 

Fig. 45 

A pure bbfd GRADING CHART B 

M»iP MONGREL 

MALE FEMALES 




tion of that generation with reference to the "blood" of 
both the standard-bred bird and the mongrel. Of course, 
the word "blood" does not imply the real blood of the animal, 
but is a term used by the breeder to designate the sum total 
of the hereditary characteristics. The actual results are 
shown in Figures 46 to 49, and in Table XV. 

It should be clearly understood that only when the male 
is of a breed distinctly different from any represented in the 
females and only in the first generation of the cross, does 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 111 

the percentage given in the table directly represent anything 
of the hereditary constitution of the individual. After that 
there will be great variability in the characteristics trans- 
mitted by the females and only in the terms of averages of 
numerous progeny will the percentages hold true. 

In Figure 45, " Standard blood" is represented by black and 
"mongrel blood" by a mixture of lacing, white, stippling, and 
barring in the various circles. Thus the circle "A" repre- 
sents a bird that carries 100 per cent "pure blood" and the 
circle "B" 100 per cent "mongrel blood," or a mixture of 
laced, white, stippled, and barred varieties. From the nature 
of the case, "A" 'represents a male and "B" a group of 
females. When mated together the offspring shown at "C" 
will carry 50 per cent each of standard and of mongrel 
blood. If females from group "C" are now mated with 
another "standard" bred male, "D," the offspring, "E," 
will on the average carry 75 per cent "standard blood" and 
25 per cent "mongrel blood." 

By using standard-bred males as indicated in the chart, 
the chances of the appearance of the mongrel character- 
istics in the fifth generation, as shown at "K," would be 3| out 
of 100, and the chances in the following generation not indi- 
cated in the chart would be 1 T \ out of 100. In the early 
history of many of the pure breeds of live stock the sixth and 
seventh cross, as here shown, were admitted for registry. 



LEGENDS FOR FIGUEES 46, 47, 48 AND 49. 

Fig. 46. — -Mongrel hens, mothers of pullets shown in Figure 47, by a 
S. C. W. Leghorn sire. Egg records and lines of descent are shown in 
Table XV. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Fig. 47. — First generation of S. C. W. Leghorn grades. Daughters of 
mongrels shown in Figure 46 by a S. C. W. Leghorn sire. Mothers of 
pullets shown in Figure 48 by a S. C. W. Leghorn sire. Lines of descent 
and egg lecords are shown in Table XV. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 

Fig. 48. — Second generation of S. C. W. Leghorn grades. Daughters 
of females shown in Figure 47 by a S. C. W. Leghorn sire. Mothers of 
pullets shown in Figure 49 by a S. C. W. Leghorn sire. Lines of descent 
and egg records shown in Table XV. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 

Fig. 49. — Third generation of S. C. W. Leghorn grades. Daughters 
of females shown in Figure 48 by a S. C. W. Leghorn sire. Lines of descent 
and egg records are shown in Table XV. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



Fig. 46 




Fig. 47 




Fig. 48 




Fig. 49 




116 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 





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THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



117 



The actual improvement with regard to uniformity runs 
rather in advance of the percentages shown in the chart 
after the first cross, as shown by Lippincott 1 and illustrated 
in Figures 46 to 49. Furthermore, standard-bred males 
are prepotent over mongrel females in most characteristics. 
Prepotency is the breeders term for the superior power 
which one parent has over the other in determining the char- 
acter of the offspring. It increases with (1) standard breed- 
ing, (2) line breeding, and (3) long-continued breeding, 
because each of these tend automatically to produce purity 
in a given character. 

Fig. 50 




A hen carrying seven-eighths Single Comb White Leghorn blood whose 
egg record is 303 in twelve months and 505 for twenty-four months. 
(Courtesy of Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

If only individuals of the highest constitutional vigor are 
used, improvement will be found still more satisfactory if 
the pure-bred males used from year to year are members 
of the same family as well as members of the same breed. 
The reasons for this are discussed under "line breeding." 



1 Kansas Bulletin No. 223. 



118 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Banger of Grading. — The weakness of grading as a practice 
lies in its success as a method. Because in the second or 
third generation males are produced that very closely 
approach standard, line-bred birds in appearance, the temp- 
tation is to use them for breeding purposes rather than to 
purchase, first cost considered, a relatively expensive stand- 
ard-bred bird. When this is done improvement, usually 
stops and the ground gained will be at least partially lost. 

Thus, if in Figure 45 the offspring of C and D appear to be 
fairly uniform, the breeder may yield to the temptation to 
use a fine-looking cockerel from group E. The offspring 
on the average carry 25 per cent mongrel blood instead of 
12.5 per cent, as indicated at G and is therefore no improve- 
ment over E. In fact, in appearance many of them will not 
be as good, because the offspring E has the benefit of the 
characteristics transmitted by a standard-bred sire. A 
grade sire is no more prepotent than the grade females he 
is mated with. The result is that instead of tending to become 
more uniform the offspring will be less so. 

Inbreeding and Line Breeding.— Authorities differ on the 
distinction between these terms. In a recent exhaustive 
study of inbreeding Pearl 1 suggests that most definitions 
of inbreeding have been based on practical expediency rather 
than on careful analysis of the problem. He defines inbreed- 
ing as the reduction of the number of possible different ances- 
tors in any generation or generations. This is, of course 
accomplished through the mating of individuals more or 
less closely related. 

Line breeding is a special form of inbreeding in which the 
number of possible different ancestors of a given bird is 
reduced in such a way as to increase the number of appear- 
ances of a certain ancestor in its pedigree. 

The difference between line breeding and inbreeding is 
shown in Figures 51 and 52. 

In the third ancestral generation, as shown in Figure 51, 
birds A, B, C, D, each appear twice and the number of 
ancestors of K is thereby reduced one-half. That is to say, 
K has only four different individuals as grandparents 

1 American Naturalist, vol. xlvii, No. 562. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



119 



instead of the supposedly normal number, eight. This is 
the mating of relatives and is, therefore, inbreeding. Because 
no one of these birds appears in the pedigree of K oftener 
than any other of the same generation, no line breeding has 
been done. 

Fig. 51 



r i 



K 



H 



Illustrating inbreeding that is not line breeding. 

In Figure 52 the number of ancestors is also reduced by half 
and the intensity of the inbreeding of L is exactly the same as 
that of K in Figure 51. A notable difference, however, arises 
in the fact that each blood line of L runs back to A as a sire in 
Figure 52. L is therefore said to be line bred with reference 
to A. 

Fig. 52 

, / A 



M 



K 



11 



Illustrating inbreeding that is line breeding 



Line breeding is as near as the poultry breeder can come to 
securing the benefits of asexual reproduction, which the 
horticulturist secures through cuttings. If an unusually 
fine tree makes its appearance among seedlings it is preserved 
and multiplied by asexual means, and thus "the blood" is 
transmitted to the next generation in perfect purity. This 



i20 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

cannot be done in the case of a correspondingly unusual 
bird. The nearest that the poultry breeder can approach 
this is by mating such a bird to its own progeny and founding 
a family whose blood lines carry a preponderance of its influ- 
ence. 

The purpose of line breeding is to purify and render per- 
manent in the breed some highly desirable quality or quali- 
ties of an individual or family. 

In somewhat the same way that the continued use of 
standard-bred males raises the average quality of a flock 
of mixed breeding by fixing standard-bred qualities, the 
continued mating of an unusually excellent breeder with 
offspring of his or her own get, or even a more indirect 
introduction of that individual's blood, tends to raise the 
quality of further offspring to as high grade of excellence 
as either of the original parents, by fixing the characters 
of the parent whose blood is most desired. 

Felch's Breeding System. — A well-known practice in poul- 
try breeding is that represented in the very excellent chart 
adapted by Pierce from one worked out by Felch, a veteran 
Light Brahma breeder, and shown in Figure 53. 

In this chart the breeding operations are represented as 
beginning with a pair of unrelated birds which are indicated 
by the circles "A" and " B." Throughout the diagram, 
solid black indicates the average proportion of blood of the 
original male A. In the same manner, white always indicates 
the average proportion of blood from the original female B. 

Thus the members of group C, which are offspring of the 
original pair, will on the average receive half of their inheri- 
tance from each parent. If a pullet from group C is now 
mated with her sire A, the resultant offspring represented 
at D will, on the average, carry 75 per cent of the character- 
istics of the original male. If now a pullet from group D is 
mated with the original sire A, the progeny represented at 
F will, on the average, carry 87.5 per cent of the character- 
istics of the original male and but 12.5 per cent of those of 
the original female. 

In exactly the same way males from groups C and E may 
be mated back to the original female B with correspond- 
ing results. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



121 



While Felch's system is commonly spoken of as line breed- 
ing, it is only with reference to the individuals shown in the 
outside lines of Figure 53 that true line breeding takes place. 



Fig. 53 



GENERATIONS 
1ST 




4> # 



Breeding chart, after Felch and Pierce. (Courtesy of Breeders' 
Gazette, Chicago.) 



The mating of the two extreme lines to produce the groups 
at / and M averaging half the blood of the sire A and half 
the blood of the dam B simply represents other methods of 
getting the results of the first cross, or of a brother and sister 



122 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

mating from group C shown at R without, however, having 
them directly connected genetically. 

Danger of Line Breeding. — As in grading, danger lies in 
the temptation to use as a breeder a grade male that " looks 
good", so in line breeding the danger lies in trusting in the 
efficacy of line breeding, in and of itself, and in continuing 
to mate relatives after they have ceased to "look good." 
Inbreeding in any form offers opportunity for the segre- 
gation of characters, thereby not infrequently disclosing 
recessive poor qualities as well as tending to render pure, 
dominant desirable qualities. This increases directly with 
the closeness of inbreeding, the closest possible being that 
of a brother and sister mating as shown at C and R in 
Figure 53. 

Few fowls are fully fertile and fewer still are both fertile 
and vigorous. Selecting relatives both of which approach 
perfection in physique is difficult. Many weaknesses are hid- 
den, only to be discovered by disappointing experience. It is 
easy to mate individuals of a greater or less relationship 
where an unsuspected mutual tendency toward infertility 
will be disclosed. It is all too common to mate fowls with a 
more or less common ancestry, which already show the warn- 
ing earmarks of a weakened constitution. The result, can 
hardly be other than a progeny that is weaker than either 
parent. 

Cole and Halpin 1 began inbreeding Rhode Island Reds 
in 1913 making some matings as close as brother and sister. 
The selection practiced was for color and birds of wonderful 
color were produced. The per cent of fertile eggs hatched, 
however, decreased rapidly as shown by the following figures. 
In 1913, 67 per cent of the fertile eggs hatched. In 1914 the 
per cent was 49. In 1915 it was 41 per cent and in 1916 
18 per cent. In 1917 not a chick could be hatched. 

In 1918 a new phase of the experiment was initiated. Close 
inbreeding was maintained as before, but the selection was for 
vigor. This phase has been in progress but two years. 
There is so far no indication of a rapid decrease in fertility 

1 Poultry Culture, March, 1920. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



123 



but the color is already going to pieces. Presumably if there 
were large enough numbers and selection were made for both 
color and vigor, both might be maintained. 

It appears that the difficulty in such cases is not in line 
breeding as a practice, but in the skill and judgment in 
selection. As Marshall 1 puts it, " We may say of the cases (of 
line breeding) that have resulted unfavorably, that we should 
look not to the kinship of blood but the kinship of defect" 
for the difficulty. Thus we may also say of the successes of 
line breeding that they are attributable "not to the kinship of 

Fig. 54 




Trap-nests. Modeled on the plan of the Purdue nest. Door in top 
opens into wire receptacle for keeping eggs until collected for the day. 
(Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

blood but the kinship of superiority. . . . Success or 
failure with inbreeding is clearly dependent upon selection." 
When vigor and hatching power are the first basis of selection, 
less will be heard of the evils of line breeding. 

Pedigreeing. — By pedigreeing is meant keeping a complete 
breeding record. It involves the recording by leg-band 
number (or other accurate means of identification) of the 
male and female mated together, the recording on each egg 



1 Breeding Farm Animals. 



124 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



with the aid of the trap nest, of the number of the hen laying 
it, of so arranging the eggs in the incubator by means of 
pedigree trays, small covered wire baskets, or sacks of mos- 



Fig. 55 



::J* 



"-"jfpflp 



i 






Incubator tray of pedigree sacks full of chicks. (Courtesy of Kansas 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

quito-barring or curtain netting, that each chick as it hatches 
will be enclosed with a label identifying it with its dam, 

Fig. 56 




Wingband and legband used as markers for identifying individual birds. 
The legbands placed on males always have the letter M following the 
numeral. 

numbering each chick by means of a wingband and recording- 
it in a chick index. Later an adult band is placed on the leg, 
the latter also being recorded in the chick index. Besides 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



125 



this, there must be a flock breeding record, corresponding 
to the herd book of the larger farm animals, by means of which 
pedigrees may be traced. Such a program is within the reach 



Fig. 57 




Making the incision for the wing band in the web of the wing of a newly 
hatched chick. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Fig. 58 




The wing band in place on a newly hatched chick. (Courtesy of Kansas 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



of the breeder who, compared with the producer, deals with 
fewer numbers and makes a relatively larger profit on each 
bird. 



126 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



The breeder's goal is not so much "how many" as "how 
good." Pedigree breeding is a necessity in selecting for 
fecundity or hatching power. There cannot be the best 
progress along production lines without it. 



Fig. 59 




Winguand as it appears in the wing of tiie adult fowl. It bears the year 
date of hatching as well as the chick's number. As it remains in place 
throughout life, the age of the bird can always be told. (Courtesy of 
Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



The general producer, however, desires numbers and sells 
on a comparatively narrow margin, hence the time element 
involved is too great to make pedigreeing practical. He 
must look to the production breeder to do this for him. 

Breeding Record Blanks.— An individual's breeding record 
is started when it is hatched. As soon as it is well dried off 
it is wingbanded or legbanded. The number on this band 



5 HE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



127 




128 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

and the numbers of the chick's sire and dam must be recorded . 
For this purpose a printed form as illustrated in Figure 60 
is most useful. 

At the upper right hand corner of each sheet of this " Chick 
and Mating Index" is entered the legband number of the sire 
of all the chicks recorded on that sheet. The legband number 
of the dam of each chick is recorded on the same line with 
the chicks wingband number. These sheets therefore serve 
not only as a record of the parentage of the chick, but of the 
females mated with any given sire, which produced offspring. 
They also give the exact date of hatching. 

When the chicks are mature enough to go into the laying 
house or breeding pen, they are legbanded. While the wing- 
band remains in place throughout life, it is covered by the 
long feathers of a mature bird. The legband is resorted to 
and should be put on upside down so that it may be easily 
read in handling the bird without having to turn the latter 
upside down. The legband number should be recorded on 
the same line as the wingband number. The numbers on the 
wing and legbands are not necessarily the same. 

While the Chick and Mating Index gives all the facts 
necessary for tracing a given birds ancestry, it does not give 
them in easily accessible form. For this purpose it is 
desirable to have a second blank called the Flock Breeding 
Record, as shown in Figures 61 and 62. In the columns 
headed "Legband Number" are entered in serial order the 
legband numbers of all birds reaching maturity whether 
the individuals are retained as layers or breeders, or sold for 
breeding purposes. These numbers may run from 1 to 3000, 
or 10,000 and even higher, depending upon the extent of the 
breeding operations carried on. On the line with each leg- 
band number and in the column headed "Mating Number" 
is given the mating number of the individual represented. 

This mating number is made by combining the legband 
numbers of the sire and dam as given in the Chick and Mating 
Index. For example, if it is found that the sire of 716 
(wingband 20, Figure 60) is 26M (upper righthand corner) 
while her dam is 114, the mating number of 716 is 26M114. 
In the same way the mating number of 506 (Figure 61) is 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 129 

given as 17M207 because the sire is 17M and the dam is 207, 
this information having been transferred to the Flock Breed- 
ing Record from a sheet of the Chick and Mating Index not 
shown in the accompanying figures. If the numbers ran 
higher and it was found that the mating number of 10,012 
was 115M2006 (Figure 61 lower left hand corner) the fact 
would be clear that the sire of 10,012 was 115M and the dam 
was 2000. 

The Flock Breeding Record bears the same relation to the 
flock of the individual breeder that the herdbook does to an 
entire breed of cattle. It enables the breeder to readily trace 
the ancestry of any individual in his flock back to the parents 
of the individuals with which the record was first started. 

Thus, when it has been found that the sire of 10,012 is 115M 
and that the dam is 2006, it may be easily determined by 
looking up 115M in the Flock Breeding Record (Figure 62) 
that its sire and dam are 85M and 519 respectively. In 
the same way it may be discovered that the parents of 2006 
are 85M and 505. She is therefore a half sister of her mate. 
The further ancestry may be traced back to the first birds 
recorded as shown in Figure 63. 

When individual egg records (see Figure 64) are kept for 
all females used as breeders the mating members of the 
females may be written on the egg record sheets. When 
this is done it will be nesessary to keep a flock breeding 
record for the males only. 

A pedigree blank as shown in Figure 63 is highly desirable 
for assembling the information gained from the Flock Breed- 
ing Record. Below the spaces intended for the female ances- 
tors are spaces for the yearly egg records completed by each 
one. 

Official Records.— As previously indicated (see page 57) 
there are no official breeding records for poultry, though the 
question of the registration of poultry is being agitated. The 
production records made at the laying contests conducted by 
several states are recognized as authentic and those records 
of two hundred eggs or higher made at contests are recorded 
as official by the American Record of Performance Council. 
This Council is authorized and organized by the American 
9 



130 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 




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132 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



Association of Instructors and Investigators in Poultry 
Husbandry with offices at the New Jersey Agricultural 
Experiment Station, New Brunswick, New Jersey. 

In New York -state a system of certifying flocks which 
come up to a recognized standard regarding production is 
administered by the New York State College of Agriculture 
at Cornell University. 

Fig. 65 




A cross-bred hen carrying three-eighths Barred Plymouth Rock blood 
and five-eighths Single Comb White Leghorn. Egg record, 291 in twelve 
months. (Courtesy of Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Cross-breeding. — Two kinds of cross-breeding are practised. 
With the first, which is used in endeavoring to find a new 
combination of characters or qualities and thus form a new 
breed, individuals of different breeds whose blended characters 
it is hoped will approach the combination sought, are mated 
and selected progeny of the cross are used as breeders for 
further operations. An illustration of this is found in the 
formation of the American breeds. 

With the second the two breeds are kept in their purity, 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 133 

and the progeny, which always represent a first cross, are 
never used for breeding purposes. Thus it is said that for 
producing Philadelphia capons a cross much employed is 
that of the Light Brahma and White Plymouth Rock. 
The offspring always carry half their blood from each breed. 
For producing market ducks a cross much used is that of the 
Pekin and Aylesbury. In such breeding it should always 
be considered which is the better of the two reciprocal 
crosses. 

Such a practice as this is sometimes erroneously referred 
to as line breeding, because both lines of stock are bred pure 
and only the first cross used. 

PURPOSE OF SELECTION. 

The purpose of selection is to prevent the birth of indi- 
viduals not suited for production. In pursuance of this 
purpose the points to be selected for in the order of their 
importance are (1) constitutional vigor and capacity, (2) 
hatching power, (3) egg production, (4) longevity, (5) early 
maturity, and (6) breed and varietal characteristics. 

With the producer, from the nature of the case, selection 
is confined to the first and the last three points. In most 
cases it will be confined to the first and the last. For the 
second and third he must depend upon the breeder. If 
grading is carried on, selection so far as the producer's own 
flock is concerned is further limited to females. 

Constitutional Vigor and Capacity.— The appearance and 
manifestation of maximum vigor and vitality can only be 
present when all organs o ? the body that have to do with 
digestion, circulation, respiration, and the nervous system 
which controls all, continuously perform their full work. 
This maximum efficiency of all organs makes up constitution. 

That constitutional vigor is the foundation of good pro- 
duction cannot be overemphasized. The best inheritance 
conceivable, with regard to all other points of selection, is 
useless unless there is physical stamina as a foundation. 
Without it, inheritance is as helpless as a dynamo that has 
no conducting cable to connect it with its motors. It is the 



134 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



conductor that makes possible in production the possibilities 
generated in breeding. 

There must be physical thrift to withstand the exhaustion 
of an inherited heavy production. Reproduction in the hen 
is normal only when there is an excess of vitality, as well as 
of feed, beyond that needed for the hen herself. In the case 
of persistent and continuous reproduction there must be a 
very large excess. 

In order to realize on an inherited tendency to quick 
growth and early maturity, there must be good digestive 
power to prepare for assimilation large amounts of materials, 

Fig. 66 



M^H 




Showing the difference in the offspring of strong and weak hens. These 
chicks had the same sire. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment 
Station.) 



out of which growth is manufactured. This can only be had 
when every organ of digestion and assimilation and of repro- 
duction is large and active. Such organs can exist only in 
a capacious body and capacity is a first requisite of vigor. 

Beyond this it is a law of universal application that low 
vitality means weak defensive agencies throughout the body 
and a greater susceptibility to disease. This extends not 
only to the individual, but to the offspring by way of inherit- 
ance and by lessening the bactericidal properties of the 
secretions of the oviduct during the manufacture of the egg. 

A good constitution is as much a heritable character as are 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



135 



color and comb. Proper housing, feeding, incubating, and 
general care help to conserve the health of the flock, but the 
very best management cannot obviate the necessity of a 
vigorous fowl to begin with. It is "bred in the bone," and 
handed down to offspring from both parents. 

Influence of Vigor of Dam upon Offspring. — Aside from 
the question of the inheritance of vigor lies the fact that 
only the complete health and nourishment of the body is 
likely to insure the highest vitality and, in the case of the 
males, activity in the reproductive cells. Furthermore, 
the vigor of the dam has an effect upon the food supply of 
the embryo chick, comprising the yolk and albumen of the 
egg. 

Fig. 67 




Cockerels showing strong and weak constitutions. (Courtesy of Cornell 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

While technically this has no more to do with the inherit- 
ance of the chick than the amount and quality of milk 
drank has to do with the inheritance of the calf, practically 
it is of great importance in bringing out strong chicks. As 
a result of observations, incidental to his studies of the 
inheritance of egg production, Pearl 1 makes the following 
statement: " It is certain, from observations of both egg and 
chick, that the same kind and quality of food is not furnished 
to the embryo by the egg manufactured in the body of a 



1 Maine Bulletin No. 192 



136 



PO UL Tit Y PROD UCTJON 



strong fowl as is furnished in the egg manufactured in the 

body of a weak fowl. 

"Furnished with a qualitatively inadequate food-supply, 
the embryo either dies before hatching or hatches into a weak, 
debilitated chick. This badly nourished, weak chick grows 
into an adult fowl which is weak in constitution and usually 
weaker and to a greater degree lacking in vitality than the 

Fig. 68 




Single Comb White Leghorn laying 295 eggs in first laying year, 
body capacity. (Courtesy of D. Tancred, Kent, Wash.) 



Note 



parent. This offspring may thus be expected to produce 
a still less normal supply of nutriment in its eggs than did 
its mother, since it is less vigorous and normal than she 
was. Thus the weakness is passed on from generation to 
generation, tending all the time to become greater." 

The Vigorous Type. — There are certain characteristics 
which are correlated with that maximum efficiency of all 
organs termed constitution. These characteristics are rela- 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 137 

tive rather than absolute. While a long, straight, narrow 
beak is undesirable on any breed, the beak of a Leghorn 
cannot be expected to be as short, stout and of tin- iame 
curvature as that of a Brahma or even a Plymouth Rock. 
Breed characteri tic urn t be given due con ^deration and the 
comparison of these characteristics hould be between mem- 
bers of tli<- same breed. 

The head should be of fair size because of its breadth and 
depth rather than its length; show a pair of keen, alert, and 
rather prominent eyes, which are directed nearly at right 
angles to the long axis of the head and are free from puffy 
or overhanging eyebrows; carry a comb that i well developed 
and fiery red, and ;i beak thai i comparatively hort, itout, 
and well curved. The so-called "cross-eyed" hen is to be 
,i- oided, 

A head that carries a chronieally congested eomb, a lonj.', 
Straight beak, or is itself long and narrow, or sunken, will 
usually be associated with functional weakness throughout 
the body. 

The body trunk must furnish ample room for the vital 
organs and particularly those organs whieh are associated 
directly with the digestion and assimilation of feed and the 
manufacture of eggs. There seems to he a decided correla- 
t.ion between a capacious body and digestive and reproduc- 
tive organs of good size and vigor. For a time it was held 
that the rear half of the fowl's body should he deep in pro- 
portion to the front half. This was largely based on the fact 
that the ovary and oviduct and the gizzard and intestines 
extend from about the middle of the body (from front to 
back) to its posterior extremity. J-'rorn continued observa- 
tion, however, it appears that while the great asset is capacity 
and all great producers have it, the form of body with regard 
to its relative fore- and after-depth varies greatly. 

The heavy producers that are able to persist in their high 

production for a number of years without becoming ruptured 

or, as poultrymen term it, "breaking down behind," usually 

have the abdomen supported by a Ion:/ keel (breast bone). 

The individual thai po e e ;> robusl constitution will 

i the capacious body lupported by strong, parallel, or 



138 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



in males slightly base-wide, legs on which the nails of the 
scratching toes are well worn, denoting activity. It is the 
highly active hen that is the last to roost at night and the first 
about in the morning, that the trap nest usually points to as 
the high producer. 

Aside from the characteristics that go to make up the 
general conformation of a vigorous bird, there must be a good 
general appearance that is made up of the style and carriage 
that is closely associated with disposition, on the one hand, 

Fig. 69 




Barred Plymouth Rock, female. Record 62 eggs. Notice lack of femininity 
and trimness. (Courtesy of J. W. Parks.) 



and that balanced development of all parts called symmetry 
on the other. The physically strong and, in the case of males 
particularly, the sexually strong bird has a well-developed 
oil sac, and spends considerable time oiling and preening 
its feathers. The well-kept glossy coat and general neatness 
and trimness of appearance that indicate pride in plumage 
are assets not to be ignored. Allowance must be made on 
this point for frayed and faded females at the end of a season 
of heavy laying. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 139 

To these characteristics of vigor must be added the high 
development of those appearances associated with sex. 
Poultrymen often speak of the " sweet" appearance of a pullet 
or the " matronliness" of a hen as being desirable character- 
istics. This is simply one way of expressing the desirability 
of a decidedly feminine appearance which is likely to be 
most heavily marked in those hens which lay most heavily. 

Evidences of strong masculinity on the part of the males is 
equally desirable. Great gallantry, fearlessness in fighting, 
a persistence in the crowing challenge, and the sidling strut 
before the hens, taken together, denote sexual strength. 
The cock-crowing contests in Belgium are not so far wrong 
as a basis for the selection of breeding males. As already 
shown, the secondary sexual characters by which we dis- 
tinguish the sexes, are directly dependent upon the sex glands. 
Any lack of development in these characters very probably 
points to more or less undeveloped ovaries or testes as the 
case may be. 

The Meat Type. — It would seem, perhaps, that with 
meat an important by-product some attention should be 
given the deepness of muscling over the breast or the thick- 
ness of flesh over the thighs. As a matter of fact, the bird 
that enjoys the robustness of perfect health, or that is a good 
performer at the nest, will nearly always be found to be well 
meated. 

With meat practically a by-product, and the whole carcass 
the retail market unit, the question of a meat type is not so 
important as in the case of beef cattle. There, meat is the 
principal product, and there is a great range of value between 
the various cuts. These cuts are sold separately, and are, 
in point of fact, the retail market units. The proportion 
between the more and the less expensive ones in the carcass 
makes considerable difference in its value. Different por- 
tions of the poultry carcass are not given different market 
values. It is the general condition of the whole carcass that 
governs its desirability. 

Hatching Power.— If constitutional vigor is the conductor 
which connects the generator with its motors, hatching power 
is the switch that closes the circuit. Without it production 



140 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

ceases. With the average period of profitable production 
but two years, the necessity for the ability to renew 
the flock each year with a fair degree of certainty is 
obvious. 

Assuming good vigor, actual infertility, by which is meant 
the lack of a vital union between the sperm and the ovum, 
is usually caused by sterility, or aversion on the part of the 
sire, barrenness on the part of the dam, or by physiologic 
selection. It is not to be assumed that because a particular 
hen gives few or no fertile eggs she is worthless as a 
breeder. It often appears that males have favorites in a 
flock with which they mate frequently while there are others 
that are never served. It happens less often that two indi- 
viduals, which produce healthy chicks when mated with 
other individuals, produce no fertility when mated together. 
Such a condition is referred to as one of physiologic selection. 
The remedy in each case is the making of a new mating or, 
where feasible, alternating males in the pen from day to day. 
If upon mating with another male a female still returns 
no fertility she may be assumed to be barren and useless. 

In the case of partial or total sterility on the part of a male 
the low fertility of the eggs from all the hens mated with 
him will necessitate his being discarded in self-defense. 

It would seem from the evidence at hand that infertility 
in females of itself is not to be feared from the stand-point of 
inheritance. It is rather an individual idiosyncrasy, highly 
disappointing in present, but not serious in regard to future 
effects upon offspring. In records furnished by Pearl and 
Surface 1 it is shown that "There is no evidence that the 
character 'fertility' of eggs (measured by per cent of eggs 
infertile) is in any degree or manner inherited." Very much 
more serious from the standpoint of progeny is the frequent 
occurrence of "dead in the shell," by which is meant that 
while the egg is fertile it fails to hatch. Pearl and Surface 2 
found that " The character hatching quality of eggs (measured 
by the per cent of fertile eggs hatched) is definitely inherited 
in the female line and probably also in the male line." 

1 Maine Bulletin No. 168. 2 Ibid. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 141 

Selection for this point depends upon trap-nesting. The 
time involved in visiting the nests several times a day and 
recording the number of the hen laying each individual egg 
is out of proportion to the price received for the products 
and would fail to find a place in most schemes of manage- 
ment of the general farm. For improvement in this quality, 
great as is its importance, the ordinary producer must depend 
upon the breeder, seeking it through the medium of improved 
breeding males. 

Constitutional Vigor and Hatching Power. — Williams 1 
found that in choosing four Black Langshan hens for their 
strong vitality, and comparing them with four others of 
the same breed that were lacking in vitality, 62.95 per 
cent of all eggs laid by the vigorous birds that were 
incubated hatched. On the other hand, only 29.27 per 
cent of the eggs incubated from those laid by the hens that 
were noticeably weak hatched. 

In tests involving over three thousand eggs from White 
Leghorns and over one thousand from Barred Plymouth 
Rocks, Rice and Rogers 2 found that the average fertility 
of the eggs from flocks selected for their good vitality was 
7.5 per cent greater and the actual hatching power was 7.6 
per cent greater than in the case of eggs from flocks of birds 
that at some time had exhibited signs of weakness. 

Heavy Production and Hatching Power. — The question of 
whether high fecundity tends to lessen hatching power, 
is one upon which opinion varies and upon which there 
is comparatively little evidence. Rogers 3 reports on work 
with eighty-two hens in which all the eggs incubated during 
the second season were used. He found that taking the 
two years' production as a basis of comparison the hatching 
power was higher with average producers than with those 
individuals whose production was exceptionally high or 
exceptionally low. 

The hen that lays large numbers of eggs appears to slight 
them somewhat from the physiologic stand-point. Beyond 

1 Bachelor's Thesis, Oklahoma Agricultural College, 1913. 

J Cornell Bulletin No. 318. 

3 Cornell Countryman, vol. ix, No. 3. 



142 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

a certain limit, increased egg production is obtained only at 
the expense of hatching power. 

On the other hand, with the hen that produces an unusually 
small number of eggs, lack of vitality is likely to be the limit- 
ing factor which affects the hatching power as well as the 
production. 

Bearing on this same point, Pearl and Surface 1 reached 
the conclusion that "there is a distinct correlation between 
winter (November to March) egg production and the per- 
centage of fertile eggs hatched during the subsequent breed- 
ing season. This correlation is of such sort as to indicate 
that in general the higher the winter egg production of a 
particular bird the lower will the percentage of that bird's 
fertile eggs hatched probably be, and vice versa." 

Rate of Production and Hatching Power. — There seems 
also to be a relation between the rate of egg production 
during the incubating season and hatching power. As 
shown by Table XVI, hens laying 1 1 eggs or- less during the 
same period that other hens were laying 19 or more, were 
credited with a 17.3 per cent greater hatch, considering 
all eggs that were set. 





Table 


XVI. 2 






Eggs laid during period 
of accumulating 
for incubation. 


Number 
of hens. 


Eggs 
incubated. 


Per cent 
fertile. 


Per cent 
chicks to 

eggs set. 


11 or less 


. . 14 


117 


99.2 


73.5 


12 or 15 . . . 


22 


313 


95.4 


61.7 


16 or 18 . . . 


25 


421 


94.8 


60.3 


19 or more . 


. . 21 


424 


90.1 


55.8 



Summary. ... 82 1,275 93.8 61.2 

High Egg Production.— High egg production, the supreme 
object of productive breeding for which vigor and hatching 
power are the foundation, is the point of selection which is 
the least understood. Egg production is an exceedingly 
complex character, easily affected by such environmental 
conditions as the date of hatching, feeding, housing, hygiene, 

1 Maine Bulletin No. 168. 

2 Rogers, Cornell Countryman, vol. ix, No. 3. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 143 

the weather, fright and many others. The complexity of the 
character itself has been clearly set forth by Goodale 1 who has 
shown that egg production depends upon several more or less 
independent internal factors. In order to arrive at definite 
conclusions concerning the inheritance of egg production, 
each of these factors must be investigated separately. The 
factors pointed out are, date of laying of first egg, age at lay- 
ing of first egg, earliness of maturity, rythm and rate of 
production, broodiness, molt and the persistance of produc- 
tion in the fall. 

Goodale 2 shows that for Rhode Island Reds the date of the 
laying of the first egg, aside from the date of hatching, depends 
upon the rate of growth and the earliness of sexual maturity. 
On the average, pullets that lay at six or seven months of age, 
lay more eggs than those which begin laying at eight or nine 
months or older. 

Bearing on this same point, Rice 3 offers the records of 169 
Single Comb White Leghorn hens, as shown in Table XXVI 
which indicate very marked correlation between early laying 
and high production. The four hens which began to lay at an 
age between one hundred and fifty-one and one hundred and 
eighty days gave the largest average first year production 
of any of the other groups and also gave the highest average 
total production for a period of three years. The groups that 
began to lay at ages between one hundred and eighty-one and 
two hundred and and ten days and between two hundred and 
eleven and two hundred and forty days gave the second and 
third largest average production respectively, for the first 
year and for the three year period. 

Goodale 4 and others have shown that some pullets lay 
nearly continuousy for long periods of time while others 
which lay relatively rapidly lay in cycles with periods of 
rest in between. He has also shown that broodiness tends 
to reduce production very materially. The appearance of 
a molt usually accompanies a break in production, while 

1 American Naturalist, vol. lii, Nos. 614-618. 2 Loc. cit. 

3 Cornell Countryman, vol. xii, No. 7. 4 Op. cit. 



144 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



those individuals which molt late in the fall also lay late and 
usually lay more eggs during the year than the early molters. 
It is of course the female which combines the most of the 
favorable factors mentioned above which makes the greatest 
layer, other things being equal. 

In spite of the great complexity of the problem, as the result 
of studies involving thirteen generations and several thousand 
individuals of the Barred Plymouth Rock breed, Pearl 1 was 
able to reach rather definite conclusions concerning the 
result of selecting for egg production. 

Fro. 70 




Showing the difference in barring of Plymouth Rocks that are full brother 
and sister. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

He proved first of all that high egg production is just as 
much a heritable character as the type of the comb or the 
color of the feathers. His results were of such a nature 
however, that he was forced to conclude that in the Barred 
Plymouth Rock breed a pullet can inherit the powers of high 
production from her sire only, a type of inheritance referred 
to as sex-linked. 

The most familiar example of this type of inheritance in 
poultry and one which may aid in understanding the way in 



1 Maine Bulletin, No. 205, 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 145 

which the inheritance of fecundity is limited, is found in the 
color of the Barred Plymouth Rock. Tt is a matter of com- 
mon observation that the Plymouth Rock males are always of 
a lighter shade than the females. This comes about through 
the fact that the females inherit the light bars from their 
sires only and never from their dams, whereas the males 
always inherit light barring from both sire and dam, thereby 
receiving a double dose of the light barring. 

The reason for this appears to lie in the fact that hens 
produce two kinds of eggs, one of which when fertilized, 
always produces males, while the other produces females. 
The male produces only one kind of sperm so far as sex is 
concerned, and these all carry the factor for barring. The 
female-producing eggs never carry the barring factor, while 
the male-producing eggs always do. The only result possible 
is that the male inherits light barring from both his sire 
and dam, while the female inherits it only from her sire. 

A summary of Pearl's conclusions 1 are as follows: 

1. "The record of fecundity of a hen taken by and of 
itself alone gives no definite reliable indication from which 
the probable egg production of her daughters may be pre- 
dicted. Furthermore, mass selection on the basis of fecundity 
records of females alone, even though long continued and 
stringent in character, failed completely to produce any 
steady change in type in the direction of selection. 

2. "High fecundity may be inherited by daughters from 
their sire independent of the dam. This is proved by the 
numerous cases . . . where the same proportion of 
daughters of high fecundity are produced by the same sire, 
whether he is mated with dams of low 2 or high fecundity. 

3. " High fecundity is not inherited by daughters from their 
dam. This is proved by a number of distinct and independent 
lines of evidence, of which the most important are (a) con- 

1 Maine Bulletin No. 205. 

2 "Low fecundity" as used by Dr. Pearl refers to a winter production of 
below 30 eggs. This term has been widely misunderstood by practical 
poultrymen. It represents the result of the presence of the L\ factor and 
might possibly have been better described as "mediocre fecundity," allowing 
"low fecundity" to describe, as it seems to have done in the popular mind, 
the really poor layer that gives no winter production at all. 

10 



146 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

tinued selection of highly fecund dams does not alter in any 
way the mean egg production of the daughters; (b) the pro- 
portion of highly fecund daughters is the same whether 
the dam is of high or low fecundity, provided both are mated 
to the same male; (c) the daughters of a highly fecund dam 
may show either high fecundity or low fecundity, depending 
upon their sire; (d) the proportion of daughters of low fecun- 
dity is the same whether the dam is of low or high fecundity, 
provided both are mated to the same male." 

Goodale, 1 who worked with Rhode Island Reds, secured 
results which do not appear to agree with Pearl's, in that 
he found quite a marked correlation between the production 
of pullets and the production of their dams. The daughters 
of high producing hens w T ere, on the average, better producers 
than the daughters of low producing hens mated to the 
same male. It may be that egg production, or certain factors 
which affect egg production markedly, are inherited dif- 
ferently in the Rhode Island Red breed than in the Barred 
Plymouth Rock. 

From the standpoint of the practical producer, it might 
prove fortunate if the transmission of high productive 
powers were confined to the male. Selection for high produc- 
tion, further than is made possible through culling, is out of 
the reach of the mass of producers because it involves pedigree 
breeding, which, as pointed out elsewhere, is not practicable 
on the general farm. The purchase of cockerels from high 
producing families, however, is practicable. Whatever the 
exact mode of transmission of high production may finally 
prove to be, it may be introduced into a flock of poor layers 
through the use of males from high laying families of the 
Barred Plymouth Rock and Single Comb White Leghorn 
breeds, as shown by Lippincott. 2 

As shown by Goodale, 3 it is not possible on the basis of 
present knowledge to devise a set of detailed instructions 
that could be followed by a poultryman of ordinary intelli- 
gence which would enable him to proceed step by step in the 

1 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Poul. Husb., vol. v, No. 10. 

2 Kansas Bulletin No. 223. 3 Loc. cit. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



147 



development of a race of high producers with the same cer- 
tainty that a set of instructions could be devised for com- 
paratively simple characters as comb type, feather color, 
silky plumage, etc. It is possible, however, through the 
culling out of the poorer producers in the flock so that 
only the thrifty, better laying hens are saved, and the mating 
with them of pedigreed cockerels with at least four generations 
of high producing female ancestors on both the sires and dams 
sides back of them, to improve a flock of poor producers or 
to maintain a flock of good producers. Sight should never 
be lost of the fact that the male is at least half of any breeding 
flock so far as the offspring is concerned, and there is evidence 
that he is more than half with regard to high egg production 
in at least some of the breeds. 

Average Production. —Taking their data from 150 commercial 
flocks which included about 120,000 head, mostly Leghorns, 
about a third of which were hens and two thirds pullets, 
App, Waller and Lewis 1 found that the average annual 
production per bird was 110 eggs. This represents approxi- 
mately a 30 per cent production for the year distributed by 
months as shown in Table XVII. This in all probability 
exceeds the average production of general farm flocks by at 
least three dozen eggs. 

Table XVII, The Average Per Gent of Perfect Production Shown 
During the Different Months of the Year by One Hundred and 
Fifty Commercial Flocks in New Jersey. (Data of App, Waller 
and Lewis.) 



Month 
November 
December 
January . 
February 
March 
April . 
May . 
June . 
July . 
August 
September 
October . 



Production, 
per cent 


Average number of eggs per 

bird calculated from App, 

Waller and Lewis' data. 


11.8 


3.54 


15.4 


4.77 


23.3 


7.22 


34.0 


9.52 


45.0 


13.95 


52.0 


15.60 


50.0 


15.50 


41.8 


12.54 


34.7 


10.75 


24.1 


7.47 


19.1 


5.73 


11.1 


3.44 



110.03 



1 New Jersey Bulletin, No. 329. 



148 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



Lewis 1 has also calculated the average per cent egg produc- 
tion for each month from the records of all the laying contests 
in American during the years 1912 to 1919, inclusive. The 
result of his calculation is shown in Table XVIII. 



Table XVIII. — The Average Per Cent of Perfect Production During 
the Different Months of the Years 1912 to 1918 Inclusive for 
All of the Laying Contests in America. (First Laying Year Only.) 









Production 




Production 




of American 


Calculated 


of the Leg- 


Calculated 


Breeds, 


number of 


horns, 


number of 


Month per cent 


eggs, per bird. 


per cent 


eggs, per bird 


November . . 19.1 


5.73 


24.8 


7.44 


December . 




27.7 


8.58 


24.2 


7.50 


January 






34.5 


10.69 


25.1 


7.78 


February 






48.0 


13.44 


41.0 


11.48 


March . 






61.8 


19.15 


61.7 


19.12 


April . 






63.1 


18.93 


68.7 


20.61 


May . 






59.3 


18.38 


69.3 


21.48 


June 






53.0 


15.90 


67.4 


20.22 


July 






46.9 


14.53 


60.6 


18.78 


August 






44.1 


13.67 


54.2 


16.80 


September 




38.9 


11.67 


33.1 


9.93 


October 






28.7 


8.89 


12.8 


3.96 



Indications of Laying. 2 — In order to lay well a hen must first 
of all be sound and vigorous. The characteristics of a 
vigorous fowl have already been described. There are, 
however, further indications of laying not necessarily associ- 
ated with vigor. These are pigmentation, body changes, 
molting and temperament. 

Pigmentation. —In those varieties showing yellow pigment 
in the subcutaneous fat, shanks, and earlobes (in those 
varieties having the so-called white earlobe), the pigment 
tends to disappear as laying progresses. Palmer 3 has shown 
that the presence or absence of this pigment in the fowl or its 
eggs is directly correlated with the presence or absence in the 
feed of a carotinoid pigment called xanthophyll. For this 
reason a hen fed on a ration devoid of feeds which carry it in 

1 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Poul. Husb., vol. v, No. 5. 

2 This account is adapted and slightly amplified from the one adopted 
at the judging school held at Cornell University July, 1918, and approved 
by the American Association of Instructors and Investigators in Poultry 
Husbandry and published in its journal, vol. v, No. 1. 

3 Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. xxiii, No. 1. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 149 

considerable amounts, such as yellow corn and green feed, 
might have the appearance of laying so far as pigment is 
concerned though she had never produced an egg. The 
character of the feed the hen has been receiving should 
therefore always be considered in relation to her condition 
with reference to pigment. 

When hens have feeds carrying an abundance of pigment, 
and the skin, shanks and beak are not normally pale as in the 
English breeds, Palmer and Kempster 1 have shown that the 
beginning of laying diverts all the pigment received in the 
feed from other parts of the body to the ovary where it finds 
its way into the developing yolks. The pigment of the 
external parts gradually disappears as a result of the natural 
physiological change in the structure of the skin. It is not 
replaced according to these investigators, as long as the 
individual continues to lay. 

The vent loses its pigment very quickly so that a white or 
pink vent in a yellow skinned variety usually indicates that 
the bird is laying, while a yellow vent indicates that she is 
not laying. 

The eye-ring formed by the inner edges of the eye-lids 
loses its pigment a trifle slower than the vent. The earlobes 
of the Mediterranean breeds bleach out somewhat more 
slowly than the eye-ring so that in these breeds a white ear- 
lobe on a vigorous bird usually means that laying has been in 
progress longer than does a bleached vent or eyelid. 

The color disappears from the beak beginning at the base 
and remaining longest at the tip. The lower beak bleaches 
more rapidly than the upper one. With the average yellow 
skinned bird a bleached beak means that laying has been 
in progress for from four to six weeks. 

The shanks are the last to lose their color. Bleached 
shanks therefore indicate a much longer period of production 
than does the bleaching of the other parts. The pigment 
disappears from the front of the shank first and finally from 
the back. A bleached shank usually indicates a continued 
egg production for at least fifteen to twenty weeks. 

1 Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. xxxix, No. 2. 



150 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



When laying stops, the pigment reappears in the several 
regions in the same order in which it disappeared. The 
relative rapidity of loss and regain in the various parts is 
probably correlated with the thickness of the skin, the pig- 
ment change being slowest where the epidermal covering 
is thickest. The fact that a given hen stopped laying two to 
three weeks back may sometimes be determined by the fact 
that the tip of the beak is colorless while the base is yellow. 

Table XIX. — Showing the Mean Annual Production of Groups of 
White Leghorn Hens Selected on the Basis of Vent, Beak and 
Shank Color. (Data of Card.) 





Number of Birds and Mean Annual Production. 


Color 

class. 


Vent. 


Beak. 


Shanks. 




Birds. 


Production. 


Birds. Production. 


Birds. 


Production. 


Pale . . 

Medium 

Yellow 


101 

91 

183 


189.5 
152.2 
136.3 


114 

80 

181 


184.3 
163.3 
131.8 


141 
104 
130 


178.6 
160.5 
123.4 


Entire flock 


375 


154.5 


375 


154.5 


375 


154.5 



Body Changes. —When laying, a hen has a large, moist vent, 
showing a dilated pliable condition as compared to the 
puckered hardness of the vent of the non-laying hen. The 
abdominal region is enlarged in the layer, as compared with 
the non-layer. The pelvic bones move apart and become 
comparatively elastic and pliable. In an individual that is 
not laying, these bones almost come together just below the 
vent. The same individual when in full laying may show a 
distance of three or even four ringer widths between them. 
The distance from the pelvic bones to the point of the keel 
(breast bone) is increased at the same time. These changes 
provide room for the passage of the egg, the enormous increase 
in the size of the ovary with its several rapidly growing ova 
and for the distention of the alimentary tract to accommodate 
large amounts of feed. 

The heaviness of production is indicated in a measure by 
the relative softness and pliability of the skin and the thinness 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



151 



and elasticity of the pelvic bones. The subcutaneous fat of 
the abdomen is used up by laying, so that the abdominal skin 
of the heavy producer becomes velvety and the whole abdo- 
men soft and flexible. The pelvic bones are also thin, tapering 
and elastic. In the non-layer they are likely to be thick, 
blunt and stiff, while the whole abdomen is surrounded under 
the skin with a layer of hard fat if the bird is on full feed. 
The great layer is slab-sided and deep, rather than round. 

Fig. 71 




Proper way to hold a hen for finding the distance between the pelvic bones. 
(Courtesy of T. S. Townsley, University of Missouri.) 



Among the most valuable indications of the heavy layer are 
the refinement of the head and the closeness and dryness of 
feathering. The wattles and earlobes fit close to the beak 
and are not loose and flabby. The face is clean cut and rather 
thin Puffiness in the face indicates meat rather than eggs. 
The eye is full, round and prominent as viewed across the 
tip of the beak. The high layer is trimmer in feathering than 
the poor layer, but after prolonged heavy production the oil 



152 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



does not keep the plumage so sleek and glossy. It becomes 
worn and frayed. 

There is a close correlation between the relative size of the 
comb and wattles and ovarian activity. If they are com- 
paratively large, full, smooth, hard and waxy, the hen is 
probably laying heavily; if the comb is limp but warm, the 
birds may be laying slowly; but if it is dried, shrunken and 
cold, she is not laying at all. When the comb warms up it 
is an indication that the bird is coming back into production. 

Fig. 72 




Showing the way to find the distance from the pelvic bones to the keel. 
Courtesy of T. S. Townsley, University of Missouri.) 



Molting. — When a hen molts in the summer she almost 
always stops laying. The great producer is usually a late 
molter. The length of time a hen has been molting and 
hence not laying is indicated by the progress of the molt. 
It takes about six weeks to completely renew the primaries 
next to the axial feathers and an additional two w r eeks to 
renew each of the remaining primaries. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



153 



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154 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Temperament— A good layer is more active, nervous and 
alert, yet at the same time more easily handled than the poor 
layer. She is among the first off the perch in the morning 
and among the last on it at night. When not on the nest she 
is busy and business-like, scratching or ranging in an eager 
search for feed. The great layer is a bird of a never satisfied 
appetite. 

Change in Weight of Eggs. — Hadley 1 has found that the 
innate producing ability of a hen is also shown by the degree 
of increase or decrease in the mean weight of her eggs, when 
this increase or decrease, calculated as per cent increase or 
decrease in those periods of laying characterized by the 
markedly increased production of the flock (particularly the 
spring) . On this basis, groups of hens characterized by higher 
production may be differentiated as accurately as by any 
other means. The impulse to lay is manifested not only by 
numbers of eggs but by an increase in their weight. 

Culling.— There is but one accurate means of determining 
the egg production of an individual hen or pullet, the trap- 
nest. As has been pointed out in other connections, the 
practice of trap-nesting is not practicable on most general 
farms. Fortunately, however, through the observation of the 
presence or absence of the indications of egg producing ability 
in individual hens, the better and poorer layers in a given 
flock may be separated with a fair degree of accuracy. The 
practice of making this separation and discarding the poor 
producers is referred to as culling. 

In practising culling it is much easier to judge a hen's 
past performance than to predict her future production. 
Because it has proved most satisfactory, the usual season for 
culling is the late summer and early fall. During the summer 
the hens that go into a molt and display pigmented shanks may 
be sent to market without reducing the flock production. 
Such a practice does reduce the feed bill. During the fall 
the culling should be more cautious but should be continued 
until the flock of hens is reduced to the size desired for carry- 
ing over winter for laying in addition to the pullets, and for 

1 American Naturalist, vol. liii, No. 628. 



Fig. 73 




Portable wing and coop for catching chickens. A great convenience at 
culling time. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Fig. 74 




Mole. All lumber 3-1 
excepl where sr?owr? 
All openwqs to be 
covered wilr? liqhl 





Two 4"Strap v 
" Hioqes 



S 



r 



Back View 

OF 

WlHG 
Scale fir?. = 1ft. 



Plan of portable catching-wing shown in Figure 73. (Courtesy of Kansas 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



156 



POULTRY PRODUCT ION 



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THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



157 



breeding the following spring. The late molting, pale shanked 
slab-sided hens of capacity and refinement are those which 
should be the mothers of the next year's pullets. 




A common dip net is very convenient for catching single birds, 
of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



(Courtesy 



Comfort and Egg Production. — There is a very direct 
connection between the functioning of the reproductive 
apparatus and the comfort of the hen. This is to be expected, 
for it is the law of the field and of the breeding pen that 
organisms reproduce themselves most often when the con- 
ditions are most favorable for the race. Egg production is 
reproduction. The happy hen is the laying hen. Fright; 
improper food; damp, cold, or excessively hot weather; 
the irritation of vermin; too close confinement; or any other 



158 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

discomfort will radically affect the reproductive organs, 
with the very practical result of quickly cutting down egg 
production. These conditions also tend to lower vitality 
in both parent and offspring. 

Productive Type. — It is impossible, in our present state 
of knowledge concerning the correlation between form and 
function, to formulate a definite and detailed description of 
the productive type, at all comparable with that of the dairy 
type in cattle, beyond that suggested by the indications of 
vigor and egg production, in connection with the breed 
types as given in The Standard. The present search for a 
fowl that will produce white eggs of good size in large num- 
bers, carry a light pin-feather, and be as easily restrained and 
controlled as the present American breeds, gives a concrete 
example of what some of the very practical, though perhaps 
fundamentally superficial, items that make up the productive 
type will be. The dark pin-feather is coming into disfavor 
from a market stand-point because of its unattractive appear- 
ance upon the dressed carcass. Some packers make a differ- 
ence of two cents a pound in the price paid for poultry of 
the same quality with the exception of the color of the pin- 
feathers. This puts a handicap upon the dark-feathered 
breeds, which will be much more apparent in the next few 
years than it is now. The demand for a white egg for table 
purposes is somewhat less insistent, and is slowly gaining 
in some sections while losing in others. 

Longevity. — The desirability of longevity as a point of 
selection has not received the emphasis it should. Its lack 
is one of the fundamental weaknesses of the business of 
poultry breeding. It is one of the causes at the bottom of 
the generally recognized instability of poultry production as 
a separate and specialized industry. 

In common with other live stock, there are three tests by 
which a breeding bird may be judged. These are, in the 
order of their efficiency, (1) the character of its progeny, 
(2) its own individuality, and (3) its ancestry. 

The actual breeding test as shown by the character of 
the progeny is worth far more than both the other tests 
combined. This is increasingly true in the light of the recent 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



150 



revelations concerning the inheritance of 'fecundity. As 
a stallion bred in a speed-producing line, but not himself a 
great performer, can only be discovered to be a sire of great 
speed by the performance of his get, so the actual breed- 
ing ability of a male bird, with reference to fecundity, can 
be discovered only through the performance of his daughters 
at the nest. Under present practice, it is probably safe to 
assert that in nine cases out of ten, by the time the records 

Fig. 77 




S. C. W. Leghorn, Oregona, with a five-year record of 987 eggs. She 
rounded out her 1000 eggs early in her sixth year. (Courtesy of Oregon 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



of the daughters of an unusual breeder are available and it 
is discovered that he has a whole bevy of high-producing 
daughters, he is discarded and lost track of, if not actually 
destroyed. As long as the sire of prepotent sons and high- 
producing daughters can beget a few dozen chicks a year, 
he is a profitable investment to any breeder and of great 
value to his breed. To hope for stability in breeding for 
production there must be time to judge a male's breeding 
powers by the performance of his offspring, so that he may 



160 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



be used to his limit after his real value is discovered. The 
practice should be to use both males and females for breeding 
purposes so long as they will produce a reasonable number 
of vigorous chicks. There appears to be no good reason 
why the average breeding life of both males and females 
should not be at least five years. 

Longevity is of as great importance to the producer as 
to the breeder. The profitable productive life of a hen is 
generally considered to be limited to two years. This neces- 

Fig. 78 




S. C. W. Leghorn, Kansas A8, with a fourth-year laying record of 226 eggs. 
Note button leg band whose number can be seen for some distance. 
(Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



sitates the renewal of at least one-half the producing flock 
each year., an item of uncertainty with present methods and 
one of great expense. 

As one step in developing a long-lived race of persistent 
producers, no breeding females should be used which have 
not lived at least two years and maintained the best of health. 
This engages the aid of the great law of "the survival of 
the fittest" in the selection of the breeders. The producer 
is then sure that his breeders at least have vitality enough 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



161 



to live and lay through the second summer. And those that 
stand this test and give strong indications of good production 
should be kept in service so long as they enjoy good health 
and remain active. 

Pullets and Cockerels as Breeders.— The foregoing raises 
the question of the desirability of pullets and cockerels as 
breeders. Regarding the pullets the evidence is somewhat 
contradictory. In making a study of the comparative 
efficiency of pullets and hens as breeders, Stewart and Atwood 1 
made eight separate tests of Single Comb White Leghorn 
hens and pullets which are summarized in Table XXI. The 
hens were two and three years old. 



RIGHT 



LEFT 





RIGHT 



LEFT 




Showing sixteen ways of toe-marking chicks. 

From Table XXI it will be readily seen that "the eggs 
from the pullets were smaller than the eggs from hens, and 



1 West Virginia Bulletin No. 124. 



11 



162 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



the chicks were smaller when they were hatched, grew more 
slowly, and more of them died from chick diseases than was 
the case with chicks hatched from eggs laid by the mature 
fowls." 

Table XXI. 1 



Total number of eggs incubated 
less those cracked in turning 

Average weight of eggs per hundred 

Total number of chicks 

Per cent hatched of eggs incubated 

Average weight of chicks per 
hundred when removed from 
incubator . . . . 

Average weight of chicks at second 
weighing, per hundred 

Total number of recorded deaths 

Per cent, of chicks which died . 



Hens. 

1094.00 

12.96 pounds 
840.00 
76.7 



8.28 pounds 

29.56 pounds 
42.00 
5.00 



Pullets. 

871.00 

11.19 pounc 
591.00 

67.8 



7.12 pounds 

23 . 07 pounds 

85.00 

14.5 



Fig. 



































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EARLING PRODUCTION 

1 1 1 









k NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. 



MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. 



Comparison of pullet and yearling production of American breeds at the 
Vineland Internationa] Egglaying and Breeding Contest during the years 
1616-1918. 



Pearl 2 on the other hand, working with Barred Plymouth 
Rocks, found that the first breeding year was the best for 
both males and females. In his very careful study he made 

1 West Virginia Bulletin, No. 124. 

2 Genetics, vol. ii, No. 5. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



163 



use of what he termed the Reproductive Index, which he 
proposed as a measure of the net reproductive ability of 



Fig. 81 



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^ 



NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. 
MONTH 



Comparison of pullet and yearling production of Leghorns at the Vine- 
land International Egglaying and Breeding Contest during the years 1916— 
1918. 

various matings. This Reproductive Index (RI) is as 
follows: 

Number of chicks alive at end of the third week after hatching X 100 



RI = . 

Total number of days from the day when this mating began to the 
day when the last egg from this mating began its incubation. 

It is not altogether clear just what is meant by "the day 
when this mating began." Obviously the mating must have 
been made some days before the first eggs were saved in order 
that fertility might be established. "The day the first egg 
saved was laid" would possibly be a clearer statement. 

The results of his studies based on the records of 1114 
matings, shown in Tables XXII and XXIII, clearly indicate 
that for the stock he was breeding, the first was the best 
breeding year for both cockerels and pullets. It indicates 
further that the decline in reproductive ability with advanc- 
ing age was more rapid for males than for females. 

Pearl specifically states that only well-matured young 



164 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

birds were used, never less than ten months of age and from 
that up to fourteen months. Stewart and Atwood, on the 
other hand, refer to their pullets as early hatched. The 
three-year-old hens, they state, were selected on the basis of 
vigor. It is quite evident that there is need for more exten- 
sive records from all the breeds than is now available. 

Table XXII. — Weighted Mean Reproductive Indices for Males of 
Specified Ages Mated with Females of all Ages. (Pearl's Data.) 

Ages. Weighted mean RT. 

Male = 1 mated with V ? of all ages 12.868 

Male = 2 mated with ?? of all ages . . . 10.214 

Male = 3 mated with ?? of all ages 9.625 



Table XXIII. — -Weighted Mean Reproductive Indices for Females of 
Specified Ages Mated with Males of all Ages. (Pfarl's Data.) 

Ages. Weighted mean RI. 

Female = 1 mated with cf cf of all ages .... 12.765 

Female = 2 mared with cf cf of all ages .... 11.660 

Female = 3 mated with cf cf of all ages .... 11.455 

Table XXIV. — Weighted Mean Reproductive Indices for Matings of 
Individuals of the Specified Combined Ages. (Pearl's Data.) 

Combined ages of mated Number Weighted mean 

individuals when mated. of cases. RI. 

Two years 796 13.083 

Three years . 190 11.121 

Four years 113 11.119 

Five years 12 1 7.458 

Six years 3 15.667 

A record of the age of a fowl may easily be indicated by 
toe-marking each generation as it comes along in cases where 
pedigree records are not kept. By punching a different 
combination of holes in the webs of the feet each year a 
convenient and permanent means of establishing the age of 
any individual in the flock is furnished. 

Individual Variation in Annual Production. — Opperman 2 
reports the individual yearly records of production given in 

1 The cases are too few to give reliable results after a combined age of four 
years. 

2 Maryland Bulletin No. 157. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



165 



Table XXV. The birds were March and April hatched 
Single Comb White Leghorns. 



Table XXV. 



Hen 


First 


Second 


Third 


Hen 


First 


Second 


Third 


No. 


year. 
169 


year. 


year. 


No. 


year. 


year. 


year. 


51 


162 


144 


78 


186 


126 


115 


54 


168 


192 


146 


86 


207 


172 


174 


60 


164 


178 


158 


172 


166 


157 


86 


62 


162 


120 


102 


178 


156 


144 


122 


73 


190 


142 


81 


189 


196 


112 


97 


76 


152 


119 


136 


190 


185 


186 


171 


78 


158 


93 


92 


191 


188 


146 


100 


82 


165 


140 


108 


195 


217 


161 


132 


83 


149 


124 


102 


199 


161 


59 


25 


84 


146 


104 


107 


208 


156 


140 


102 


95 


180 


126 


102 


211 


239 


183 


148 


97 


173 


151 


156 


215 


144 


110 


111 


98 


189 


187 


10 


217 


158 


163 


154 


110 


191 


142 


111 


218 


169 


210 


159 


118 


1S1 


135 


80 


221 


205 


170 


171 


121 


164 


96 


102 


223 


158 


113 


82 


124 


187 


147 


83 


224 


165 


133 


108 


125 


164 


212 


163 


236 


182 


107 


82 


126 


176 


135 


131 


238 


142 


178 


101 


127 


216 


199 


167 


239 


143 


221 


111 


131 


155 


165 


123 


253 


169 


202 


101 


132 


166 


147 


180 


256 


178 


152 


91 


139 


175 


165 


128 


257 


179 


159 


113 


147 


179 


142 


111 


260 


147 


114 


90 


149 


187 


161 


121 


264 


188 


115 


113 


156 


179 


175 


134 


265 


162 


153 


131 


159 


166 


145 


99 


270 


161 


177 


122 


165 


157 


152 


25 


272 


1 1 


155 


101 


166 


169 


177 


148 


276 


145 


140 


117 


170 


153 


112 


97 


290 


147 


140 


130 



Total 5,130 4,445 3,447 Total 



Grand total .... 
Average production per hen 



5,150 
5,130 

10,280 
171.3 



4,498 3,460 

4,445 3,447 

8,943 6,907 

149.05 115.1 



It will be noticed that while the first year's production 
is usually the best, there are numerous cases in which the 



166 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

second year gives the greater production, as with hens Nos. 
54, 125, 239, and 253. 

In the grand totals, however, the second year's production 
shows a decrease as compared with that of the first year 
of 13 per cent. And the third year shows a shrinkage of 
32.2 per cent, as compared with the production of the first 
year, or a decrease of 56.2 eggs per hen. 

Card 1 found in a study of 106 White Leghorns at the Storrs 
Station that the correlation between the first and second year 
production was quite marked (.688=*=. 035). This probably 
represents the average condition more nearly than the 
results of Ball, Alder and Egbert 2 at the Utah Station which 
lead them to make the statement that for the family of 
birds with which they were working "individuals making 
an exceedingly high record one year very rarely hold their 
place the second or third year." 

Early Maturity. — Quick growth means a less cost of pro- 
duction of both meat and eggs. The cost per pound of the 
slow-growing sorts is very much greater than with those 
that mature early. Quickly made gains are usually eco- 
nomical gains. With the rapid maturing bird, egg produc- 
tion comes earlier and is likely to be more persistent. As 
already stated in another connection, R ice 3 found from a study 
of the trap-nest egg records, covering several years' work 
at Cornell University, that it was the general rule that the 
early layers were the heavy layers in point of annual pro- 
duction. Evidence obtained at the Maine Station indicates 
that in all probability a close correlation exists between the 
rate of growth of a pullet during the first six weeks after 
hatching and her subsequent performance as a layer. 

At the same time the point may well be raised, whether 
early maturity and longevity are not characters that are in 
more or less mutual opposition. The completion of records 
at the various experiment stations throwing light upon the 
question whether the precocious bird, so far as maturity is 
concerned, does not tend to be a short-lived bird will be 

1 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Poul. Husb., No. 5, vol. iii. 

2 Utah Bulletin, No. 148. 

3 Cornell Countryman, March, 1913. 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 



167 



awaited with interest. Pearl 1 remarks in discussing the 
inheritance of fecundity in domestic fowl that "after two 
years the fecundity of Plymouth Rocks, in all cases which 
have been observed at the Maine Experiment Station, 
becomes greatly reduced." 

Table XXVI. — Relation of Early Laying to High Production. 
(Data of Rice.) 



Grouped 
according to 
age first egg 

was laid. 


Num- 
ber of 
hens. 


Per cent. 

of total 

hens. 


Average 
age when 
first egg 
was laid. 


Average 
product 
first year. 


Average 

product 

second 

year. 


Average 

product 

third 

year. 


Average 
total pro- 
duct for 
first three 
years. 


151- 180 
181- 210 
211- 240 


4 
71 

52 


2.37 
42.01 
30.77 


176.25 

199.77 
222.46 


173.25 
157.01 
140.10 


135.75 
133.63 
121.37 


126.50 
116.41 
106 . 19 


435.50 
407.05 
367.66 


151- 240 


127 


75.15 


208.32 


150.60 


128.67 


112.54 


391.81 


241- 270 
271- 3Q0 
301- 330 
331- 360 
476 
1110 


22 

11 

6 

1 
1 
1 


13.02 
6.51 
3.55 

.59 
.59 
.59 


255.50 
285.09 
315.50 
359.00 
476.00 
1110.00 


108.10 
93.91 
88.33 
45.00 
27.00 
0.00 


121.05 
93.56 

129.00 
75.00 

155.00 
0.00 


108.50 
84.27 

107.67 
69.00 

126.00 
3.00 


337.65 
271.74 
325.00 
189.00 
308.00 
3.00 


241-1110 


42 


24.85 


299.88 


95.55 


111.81 


99.00 


306.36 


Total . 


169 


100.00 


231.08 


136.92 


124.48 


109.18 


370.57 



Breed and Varietal Characteristics. — Breed and varietal 
characteristics do a very real service in aiding in the selection 
of breeders. As pointed out in another connection, strong 
breed characteristics are generally considered to indicate 
close and careful breeding and to be a mark of prepotency. 
Other things being equal, the bird that shows most strongly 
the breed type and color markings is the bird to choose. 
Without them there could be no uniformity, which is so 
vastly important from the standpoints of both feeding and 
marketing. 

Official Breeding Tests. — There is an urgent need of per- 
manent breeding records of high-producing lines of stock 



1 Maine Bulletin No 205. 



168 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

somewhat comparable to the records of the advanced registry 
for dairy cattle. The enormous numbers involved, the com- 
paratively small economic value of the individual fowl, 
combined with the difficulty of accurately checking a system 
of reports, seem to inhibit any comprehensive plan for secur- 
ing official production records. It is not unreasonable to 
hope, however, that a scheme for testing breeding males 
by making an actual trial of their breeding powers under 
certain specified conditions and later furnishing an official 
record of the winter production of their daughters may be 
worked out. Thus a March hatched male could be tested 
the following March and the winter production of his 
daughters known early in the following breeding season. 

It would seem that at present the experiment stations of 
the several states furnish the logical place for such tests 
to be made. 

MANAGEMENT OF BREEDERS. 

The aim in the management of breeding stock is to secure 
a maximum of thrifty chicks. It involves the feeding, housing, 
incubating, and rearing of the stock intended for breeding 
purposes as well as the questions of exercise, the number of 
hens to be mated with one male, care of the breeding male, 
and the forcing of breeding hens for egg production. The 
more general questions of feeding, housing, incubating, and 
brooding are applicable to laying stock as well, and are treated 
in chapters bearing these headings respectively. These further 
questions concerning breeders specifically are important and 
should be given due consideration. 

Exercise. — The relation between the activity of a bird and 
his or her breeding power is very marked. This is witnessed 
by the fact that in the breeds that are naturally very active, 
more females may be mated with a single male with good 
results than in the less active breeds. Those breeds that 
are not naturally rustlers must be encouraged to exercise 
freely. The free range offers the ideal opportunity, of which 
vigorous birds of any but the heaviest and most phlegmatic 
breeds will not be slow to take advantage. If free range 
is not available, the birds must be compelled to exercise 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 169 

freely the year round by scratching for grain in a deep straw 
litter. In extremely hot weather judgment must, of course, 
be used, and the enforced activity confined to early morning 
and the cool of the evening. 

Number of Hens to be Mated with One Male. — Just what the 
maximum number of hens is that is proper to mate with 
any particular male is a matter of judgment which must be 
left to the individual breeder. It depends upon the present 
condition and previous treatment of the male himself and 
of the hens to be mated with him, and upon the conditions 
under which they are mated as well as upon breed and family 
characteristics. 

In a general way it may be said that in confinement the 
number will run from 8 to 12 for the heavy breeds, from 10 
to 15 for the breeds of medium weight, and 15 to 25 for the 
light, nervous, active breeds, supposing all have good vitality. 
Where the stock is ranging freely the numbers may be very 
much larger. The author once had occasion to hatch several 
hundred eggs from a flock of 250 Single Comb White Leghorn 
hens and four cockerels which were running on range, and 
secured above 90 per cent fertility. 

In practice it is always better to err on the side of having 
too few hens than too many. The results will be very much 
more satisfactory from every standpoint. App, Waller and 
Lewis 1 found that on 150 commercial poultry farms in New 
Jersey the proportion of males to females varied from one to 
fifteen up to as high as one to twenty-five with one to eighteen 
or twenty as the usual number. The stock on these farms 
was 94.3 per cent Leghorns. 

Care of the Breeding Male. — The male bird during the 
breeding season should receive careful attention, as at this 
time he is truly " half the flock." Care should be taken that 
he receives sufficient food, as many males are so attentive in 
looking to the welfare of the hens that they will not eat 
enough food to maintain themselves in a vigorous and pre- 
potent condition. It is well to feed the male apart from the 
hens. By a little care the male may be taught to jump up 

1 New Jeisey Bulletin, No. 329. 



170 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

on the dropping board, where he may be fed, or come and 
eat from a dish held in the hand. 

Attention should be paid to the claws and spurs, to see that 
they are blunt on sides and points in order to avoid torn 
backs in the hens. This is specially important in males of 
the heavy breeds. The feet should be examined to see that 
he is not suffering from bumble foot or any other trouble 
that would prevent satisfactory service. Not infrequently 
in loose feathered breeds it will be found necessary to clip the 
feathers about the vent before satisfactory service can be 
secured. This may apply to the females as well. The male 
should be kept free from lice by frequent applications of a 
good louse powder, as lice may be rapidly spread throughout 
an entire flock by an infested male. 

He should be watched to see that he renders service 
completely and satisfactorily. He should be attentive but 
not clumsy and rough. At the end of ten days after a male 
has been placed with a flock which has not been running 
with a male previously, and at the end of two weeks when 
changing males, eggs should be incubated and tested for 
fertility at the end of five days, in order to be sure that the 
male is fertile. 

Alternating Males. — Two practices resorted to for the pur- 
pose of securing good fertility with as few males as possible 
are the alternating of males and stud-breeding. With the 
former, twice the number of hens that would ordinarily be 
mated with one bird are confined in a single pen. With these 
two males are used, but on alternate days. One is allowed 
to run with the hens for twenty-four hours while the other 
is confined to a coop. The following day an exchange is 
made and the second male is given the freedom of the flock, 
while the first one is confined. 

The theory of this practice is based on the supposition of 
favoritism on the part of males. It is generally believed 
that there are certain hens in most breeding flocks that are 
slighted by the male. By alternating males it is hoped that 
if favoritism is shown it will not be to the same hens. 

This question of favoritism on the part of males is one upon 
w T hich there is little definite information and upon which 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 171 

further investigation is needed. Philips 1 has made a limited 
number of observations upon the mating habits of Leghorns, 
Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds and Langshans and 
and finds that mating or failure to mate is a matter largely 
controlled by the individual hen. The sex reaction appears 
to be much more marked in some than in others. The 
former respond to the advances of the male and the mating 
act is accomplished. The latter fail to respond and no 
mating takes place. Should these observations be further 
substantiated it would appear that the alternating of males 
is unnecessary. It is impracticable where pedigreeing is 
practised because the paternal ancestry of the offspring is 
always in doubt. 

Stud-breeding. — With the larger animals it is considered 
necessary to limit the number of services of a sire very 
strictly, for the purpose of conserving his strength and potency. 

Assuming that the same principle holds with fowls and 
that the mating of a male with a female more than once 
within a given period of time is a waste of his powers, certain 
breeders have adopted the plan of controlling the number of 
times a male and a given female mate. Such a practice has 
been termed "stud-breeding." It is accomplished by keep- 
ing the males and hens in separate pens. The hens are one 
by one dropped in with the male. As soon as mating occurs, 
they are removed to their own pen. 

Just what practical advantage there is in such a practice 
has not been determined. It would seem to be worth while 
only in case of extremely valuable birds. 

Artificial Insemination.— It has been demonstrated at the 
Oklahoma Station, by Payne 2 that hens may be successfully 
inseminated by artificial means, and eggs fertilized and 
hatched. It is possible that in the future such a practice 
may be resorted to in an effort to conserve the power of an 
exceptional male but at present no practical use is made of it. 

Double Mating. — Double mating refers to the practice of 
using separate groups of breeders to produce exhibition birds 

1 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Poul. Husb., vol. v, No. 4. 

2 Oklahoma Circular, No. 30. 



172 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

of the two sexes. It is resorted to by breeders for the purpose 
of overcoming sex limitations in color. 

The most familiar example of this practice is found among 
the breeders of Barred Plymouth Rocks. As previously 
explained, the males of this variety are always lighter in 
shade than their sisters (see Figure 70, page 144). According 
to the Barred Plymouth Rock "Standard," both males and 
females should be nearly the same shade for exhibition 
purposes. In order to secure them so, it is necessary to mate 
different groups of birds. A group dark enough to produce 
cockerels of the proper shade is referred to as a cockerel 
mating. The pullets from such a mating will generally 
of necessity be discarded for show purposes because they are 
too dark. 

In the same way, a mating light enough in color to produce 
pullets of the proper shade is spoken of as a pullet mating. 
The cockerels from such a mating will usually be unfit for 
showing. A standard which requires double mating is an 
artificial one, and, from the standpoint of production, a 
ridiculous one. It results practically in breeding two sub- 
varieties, from one of which exhibition males are selected, 
while exhibition females are selected from the other. 

Surplus Cockerels. — All the cockerels on the producer's 
farm are surplus cockerels. They are a necessary by-product 
of pullet production, useless as breeders, unless the entire 
flock is pure bred, and to be disposed of in the easiest and 
most profitable way possible. 

There are two alternatives open. One is to market them 
as broilers or fryers before they develop sexually and begin 
to tread the hens and worry the pullets. The price paid 
for early broilers usually is high enough so that at the age 
of a few weeks they bring in as much cash per bird as later 
when they weigh several pounds, but are staggy. 

The second alternative is to caponize them and feed them 
out. In the sections where there is a ready market for 
capons, this may be done more profitably and the birds 
grown with the laying flock without inconvenience. 

The Farm Breeding Flock. — The circumstances surrounding 
the producer are usually such that his laying flock and his 



THE BREEDING OF CHICKENS 173 

breeding flock are the same. This necessitates the produc- 
tion of fertile eggs by all the layers, using eggs for hatching 
purposes from pullets as well as hens, and furnishing males 
enough to mate with the entire flock. Altogether this is an 
expensive proposition entailing loss in the market quality 
of the eggs, lower hatching power and weaker chicks from 
the eggs laid by pullets, and more males to feed. 

Under general farm conditions, there is no reason why 
any distinction between breeders and layers should be made 
nine months in the year. All should have the free run of the 
farm. During the breeding season, however, a group of 
selected hens, should be confined in a chicken- tight, roomy 
pasture, with the males selected for the season's breeding. 
Only males out of standard-bred high-laying dams should be 
used as breeders. It must be clearly understood, however, 
that only a portion of such males will transmit high produc- 
tion to any large proportion of their daughters. This will 
remain true until line breeding with reference to high pro- 
duction has been carried on for a very much longer time than 
it has at present. 

If one is so located that there is no danger of males from 
neighboring farms mixing with the breeding flock, a better 
practice would be to confine the laying flock and let the 
breeders range. At the end of the breeding season the males 
should be confined or sold. They should not be allowed 
to mingle further with the hens and pullets. 

Community Breeding.— What is likely to be an increasingly 
important phase of poultry improvement work is community 
breeding. This refers to the uniting upon a single breed and 
variety of the majority of farmers in a given community, to 
the exclusion of other breeds. The advantages of this from 
the standpoints of feeding, marketing and general manage- 
ment are numerous as will appear in later sections of this 
book. 

The Petaluma district of of California, the Little Compton 
section of Rhode Island and the Yineland district of New 
Jersey are famous the country over for particular breeds. 

Effort directed toward bringing about similar conditions 
in other parts of the country is rather recent. Kentucky 



174 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

is taking a leading place in work of this kind. In that state 
twenty-four counties are endeavoring to breed Single Comb 
Rhode Island Reds, eight counties have chosen the White 
Wyandottes, twenty-seven counties are working toward 
making the White Plymouth Rock the predominating breed, 
and ten counties have chosen the Barred Plymouth Rock. 
In Canada the province of Ontario is fast getting rid of 
everything but Barred Plymouth Rocks, which are being bred 
in a high state of excellence and breeding stock distributed 
by the Ontario Agricultural College. 



CHAPTER IV. 
THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS. 

The Egg and its Structure. — The analogy between the egg 
and the grains is in many ways closer than between the 
egg and any animal product commonly found on farms. 
Each represents an analogous stage in the reproductive 
cycle. Each contains, besides the living part, which develops 
into a new organism, enough food material to nourish that 
organism until it can seek nourishment for itself. With such 
grains as corn and wheat, where the food material is stored 
in an endosperm which is merely connected with the embryo, 
rather than in cotyledons which are a part of it, the analogy 
may be pressed still closer, because the food material in the 
egg is merely connected with the living part. 

There are, however, certain interesting differences. The 
food material stored in the grain consists of starch, oil, and 
protein, while that of the eggs is fat and protein. The 
grain does not contain enough moisture for development, 
and must increase its moisture content about 200 per cent 
before it can germinate. The egg contains sufficient moisture 
for its own development, and though it is sometimes necessary 
to retard the evaporation of egg moisture, the egg does not, 
so far as is known, ever increase its moisture from outside 
sources. Grains germinate over a range of temperature 
running from nearly freezing, in the case of wheat, to about 
103° F. While eggs will start to develop at a much lower 
temperature than is popularly supposed (68° F.), the range 
for eggs is not nearly so great as it is for seeds. The optimum 
germinating temperature for most seeds is around 86° F., 
while the optimum incubating temperature is close to 103° 
F., with an upward limit which Kellicott 1 states is 41° C. 
(105.8° F.). 

1 Chordate Development. 

(175) 



176 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

The principal divisions of the egg, and their weights in 
per cent of the total weight of the egg are (1) the yolk, 32.75 
per cent; (2) the white, 57.01 per cent; (3) the shell mem- 
branes, 0.25 per cent, and (4) the shell, 9.99 per cent. 

The yolk and its "germ spot," known as the blastoderm, 
are inclosed in a delicate transparent membrane called the 
vitelline membrane. This membrane is responsible for the 
yolk maintaining a spherical shape. The material making 
up the body of the yolk is a highly nutritious food which is 
gradually digested and absorbed by the growing embryo. 
It has a rather definite structure, being divided into yellow 
and white yolk. As shown in Figure 82, the yellow yolk 
makes up the bulk of yolk material. The most of the white 
yolk is found in the flask-shaped mass situated at the center 
of the yolk sphere, with the neck extending toward and flaring 
out just beneath the blastoderm and entirely surrounding the 
yolk just inside the vitelline membrane. There are said to be 
several thin concentric layers of white yolk throughout the 
yolk mass (Figure 82), but these are sometimes difficult of 
demonstration. 

In an egg that has not been moved for some time the yolk 
will be found to be floating on the white near that portion 
of the shell which is then uppermost and with the blastoderm 
uppermost. If the egg is turned the yolk will gradually 
return to the same relative position. This is caused by 
the lower specific gravity of the yolk as compared with the 
albumen, and of the hemisphere of the yolk supporting the 
blastoderm as compared with the opposite one. 

It has been suggested that nature's purpose in this arrange- 
ment is to bring the blastoderm as close to the source of heat 
during natural incubation as possible. 

According to Lillie, 1 " Both kinds of yolk are made up of 
innumerable spheres, which are, however, quite different in 
each. Those of the yellow yolk are on the whole larger 
than those of the white yolk, with extremely fine granular 
contents." 

Immediately surrounding the yolk and adhering closely 

1 Development of the Chick. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 



177 



to the vitelline membrane is a layer of very dense white 
which is prolonged toward the large and the small ends of 
the egg, respectively, in two whitish, convoluted strands 
called chalazse (Figure 82). The two chalazse are twisted in 
opposite directions. The line describing the long axis of 
the egg will pass through the bases of the two chalazse and 
be at right angles to the axis of the yolk passing through 
the center of the blastoderm. 

Surrounding and continuing this dense white is a spiral 
layer of somewhat less dense white which is in turn 

Fig. 82 



blastoderm 




shell 
S__ outer shell membrane 
\_aircell 
i| cha/aza 

fL inner shell membrane 
.dense white 



liquid while 

.. yolk 
I— light uolk 

vitelline membrane 



Parts of an egg. 

surrounded by a thin, watery white. The difference between 
the dense and thin white is easily noted when a new-laid 
egg is broken into a saucer. 1 The spiral formation of the 
white may be noted by carefully dissecting a hard-boiled egg. 
One of the functions of the white is to prevent micro- 
organisms from reaching the germ spot. To this end it has 
marked bactericidal properties. Once in the yolk, bacteria 
are safe, for the yolk has no defensive properties. The shell 
membrane consists of two layers, a thick outer layer next to 



1 See Figure 236, page 493, 



12 



178 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



the she'l and a thinner one next the white. Both are com- 
posed of matted organic fibers (more delicate in the inner than 



Fig. 83 










Outer shell membrane (magnified). (Courtesy of Bureau of Chemistry.) 

Fig. 84 




Inner shell membrane (magnified). (Courtesy of Bureau of Chemistry.) 

in the outer layer), crossing one another in all directions. At 
the blunt end of the egg the two layers are separated and 
form an air chamber after the egg is laid. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 179 

"The shell is composed of three layers: (1) the inner or 
mammillary layer, (2) the intermediate spongy layer, and 
(3) the surface cuticle. 

"The mammillary layer consists of minute calcareous 
particles welded together, with conical faces impinging 
on the shell membrane; the minute air spaces between the 
conical inner ends of the mammillae communicate with the 
meshes of the spongy layer, which is several times as thick, 
and which is bounded externally by the extremely delicate 
shell cuticle, spoken of on commercial eggs as the "bloom." 
The spongy layer consists of matted calcareous strands. 
The shell cuticle is porous, but apparently quite structureless 
otherwise. The cuticular pores communicate with the 
mesh work of the spongy layer; thus the entire shell is per- 
meable to gases and permits embryonic respiration and 
evaporation of water." 1 

"Under normal conditions the shell is bacterium proof. 
Moisture lessens its impervious character, however, and, when 
combined with dirt or filth, makes it possible for micro- 
organisms to enter and bring about decay." 2 

Size of Eggs. — The eggs of the different breeds of chickens 
vary somewhat in size. The average hen's egg is 2.27 inches 
long and 1.72 inches in diameter, where the circumference 
is greatest, and weighs about two ounces. This brings 
the weight of eight eggs of good size to a pound and the 
weight of a dozen eggs to a pound and a half. In some 
of the eastern states, where egg production has become 
a specialty, the average weight of hens' eggs is somewhat 
above two ounces. In most of the heavy-producing western 
states the average is somewhat below two ounces. The 
state of Iowa has a legal weight of one and a half pounds to 
the dozen, but the law is not enforced as the law concerning 
the moisture content of butter is enforced in many states. 

Eggs laid by pullets are nearly always smaller than the 
eggs laid by the same individuals a year later. It was found 
by Atwood, 3 at the West Virginia Experiment Station, that 

1 Liliie's "Development of the Chick." 

2 Rettger, Storrs' Bulletin No. 75. 

3 West Virginia Bulletin No. 124. 



180 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



this difference for hens and pullets of the same strain and 
under identical conditions was 1.77 pounds per hundred 
eggs. 

Curtis 1 found that eggs increase in weight continuously 
up to the end of the second laying season, but at a slower 
and steadily decreasing rate. 

Development of the Chick. — The growth of the chick in 
the egg occupies the incubation period, which is analogous 
to the gestation period in mammals. It begins with the 
fertilization of the ovum and continues until hatching or 
birth, unless checked by some unfavorable condition. 



Fig. 85 




Appearance of a chick embryo after twelve hours in an incubator. 
(Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Development begins by simple cell division in the living- 
portion of the egg, which is called the blastoderm, or, more 
commonly, the germ spot. The first development is a clear 
area called the area pellucida, and surrounded by a denser 
ring of cells called the area opaca. The growth of the embryo 
takes place in the area pellucida. In this area the so-called 
primitive streak develops, which is the first sign of the chick's 
body. This point in development is reached at about 

1 Maine Bulletin No. 228. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 



1S1 



sixteen hours after fertilization, which usually finds the egg- 
still within the body of the hen (Figure 80). 

" The position of the main embryonic axis is fairly uniform, 
though not completely fixed. It lies approximately at right 
angles to the long axis of the whole egg, the anterior end of 
the embryo directed to the left when the sharp end of the egg 
is held pointing away from the observer." 1 




Embryo chick, sixteen hours old. Magnified. (Courtesy of Iowa 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



If, after laying, the temperature of a fertile egg is allowed 
to fall below a temperature of 68° F., all growth ceases, and 
the egg remains in a dormant condition until its temperature 
is again raised to incubating temperatures. While develop- 
ment takes place at all degrees of temperature between 
68° F. and that which is sufficiently high to destroy the life 

1 Kellicott, Chordate Development. 



182 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



of the egg, normal development only takes place at normal 
temperatures. Pennington and Pierce 1 note that at 86° F. 
to 91° F. seven or eight days are required to equal three 
days at the normal heat of incubation. The reverse, however, 
is true also. If the temperature is somewhat above 103° F., 
germination proceeds more rapidly. For instance, twenty- 
four hours at 104° F. to 106° F. gives a chick which is equal 
in development to one incubated for three days at 103° F. 
In this connection the observations of Alsop on seventy-two- 
hour embryos developed at high and low temperatures are 
of great interest. (See page 208.) 

Fig. 87 




Appearance of a chick embryo after twenty-four hours in an incubator. 
(Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

As soon after laying as the egg is placed at a normal incu- 
bating temperature, cell division proceeds rapidly, and the 
cells form themselves into three layers which, from without 
to within, are referred to as the ectoderm, mesoderm, and 
endoderm. These three layers are the beginnings of three 
distinct divisions of the body. 

From the ectoderm, the skin, feathers, beak, claws, ner- 
vous system, lens, and retina of the eye and linings of the 



Year-book, United States Department of Agriculture, 1910. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 183 

mouth and vent are formed. The bones, muscles, blood, 
reproductive and excretory organs develop from the 
mesoderm, while the endoderm produces the linings of 
the digestive tract and the respiratory and secretory 
organs. 

Fig. 88 




Two embryos (twins) developing on one yolk, thirty-two hours old. 
Magnified. (Courtesy of Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

At about the twenty-fourth hour of incubation a membrane 
called the amnion develops and gradually surrounds the 
growing embryo. This amnion is filled with a colorless 
fluid called the amniotic fluid, which serves as a protection 
from shock and allows the embryo to move about freely. 
The growth of the amnion constricts the connection of the 
yolk with the embryo to a narrow stem called the yolk 
stalk. This stalk corresponds to the umbilical cord in 
mammals. At about the thirtieth hour the heart of the chick 
has developed far enough to be observed to beat. 



184 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



Near the middle of the second day a blind sac begins to 
push out from the posterior end of the alimentary tract, 
which grows rapidly until it completely covers the embryo 
at about the ninth day and has come in close contact with 
the shell membrane. It is abundantly supplied with blood- 
vessels and, although it is outside the body of the embryo, 
serves as the organ of both respiration and excretion until 
the chick commences to pip the shell and the lungs and 
kidneys of the chick commence to function. 

It is the veins of this allantois which are seen radiating 
from the embryo at the first testing, about the seventh day 

Fig. 89 




Appearance of a chick embryo after thirty-six hours in an incubator. 
(Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



of incubation, and which may be noted plainly at the second 
testing, about the fourteenth day. As soon as the chick 
pips the shell, pulmonary circulation starts and the allantois 
ceases to function, begins to degenerate, and is left behind 
in the shell at hatching. 

Up to the sixth or seventh day there is nothing about the 
chick embryo that would help one to distinguish it from the 
embryo of any other animal. At this time the legs and wings 
begin to take a recognizable form. The body, which has 
been very small in proportion to the head/begins to develop 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 



185 



more rapidly and to assume a more proportionate size. About 
the tenth day the little sacs containing the feathers begin to 
protrude, particularly along the back of the embryo. At 
this time there is a chalky deposit about the mouth opening, 
which is the beginning of the horny beak. Upon breaking an 
egg, what appears to be voluntary movement may be noticed 
as earlv as the sixth dav. 



Fig. 




Embryo chick, forty-eight hours old, with the heart located outside the 
body. Magnified. (Courtesy of Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



By the thirteenth day the feathers are distributed over the 
body. Their color may be seen through the thin walls of the 
sacs, which inclose them until the nineteenth day. On the 
thirteenth day the scales and nails appear, and by the 
sixteenth day are found to be quite firm and horny, as is 
also the beak. By the sixteenth day the white of the egg 
has disappeared, and the embryo subsists thereafter wholly 



186 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



upon the yolk. On the n'neteenth day what remains of 
the yolk is drawn into the body cavity. This appears to be 
the most critical day of the incubation period, for as Payne 1 
has shown, 20 per cent of the mortality occurring during 
the twenty-one days of the incubation period occur on the 
nineteenth day, and 48 per cent of the total prehatching 
mortality occur on the eighteenth, nineteenth, twentieth 
and twenty-first days. The respiratory system changes 
completely on the twentieth day. Until that time the allan- 
tois functions as the chief respiratory organ, and, in fact, 
as the excretory organ as well. With the pipping of the shell 
pulmonary breathing begins. 

Fig. 91 




Appearance of a chick embryo after forty-eight hours in an incubator 
(Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

When formed the chick is placed in the egg with its head 
bent forward beneath the right wing and the legs brought up 
toward the head. The end of the upper mandible of the beak 
is equipped with a horny cap which bears a sharp point, and 
by means of this, while slowly revolving in the shell, the chick 
is able to press against the shell, chipping it in a circular 
path around the large end of the egg, at the same time 



1 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Poul. Husb., vol. vi, No. 2. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 



187 



cutting the membranes within. According to Pohlman 1 
" the active muscular agent in breaking the shell comes about 



Fig. 92 




Appearance of a chick embryo after sixty hours in an incubator. 
(Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Fig. 93 




Appearance of a chick embryo after seventy-two hours in an incubator. 
(Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



1 Anatomical Record, vol. xvii, No. 2. 



188 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



through a change in posture of the head and upper cervical 
vertebras, chiefly dependent on the musculus biventer and 
musculus spinalis. The reflex mechanism which touches 
off this muscle system is probably a respiratory reflex, not 
dependent on demand for oxygen, but dependent on disten- 
tion of the abdomen . . . brought about through 
injection of the yolk sac (into the body cavity)." When the 
shell is nearly cut around a final convulsion by the chick 
finishes the break, and the chick can emerge. 



Fig. 94 




Embryo chick, ninety-six hours old, the wing and leg buds and the tail 
fold showing plainly. The heart is still located outside the body. (Courtesy 
of Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Selecting Eggs for Hatching. — In selecting eggs for hatching 
purposes, by far the most important consideration is the 
health and vigor of the parent stock. The reason why this 
is so vastly important is fully discussed elsewhere. Suffice 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 



1S9 



p< 


M 




<! 


n; 




O 


crt 


,4 


01 


(S 


03 




190 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

it to say that the fundamental selection is that of the parents. 
It far outweighs every other consideration. 

Beyond this it is well that the eggs from desirable breeders 
should be normal in every observable characteristic, and of 
the size and color most demanded by the market catered to. 
It should be noted in this connection that Philips 1 and 
Atwood 2 have independently come to the conclusion that 
brown eggs are more difficult to hatch than white ones. 
No eggs should be incubated which weigh less than two 
ounces. The twenty-four-ounce dozen and the case of 
thirty dozen weighing forty-five pounds net are the gener- 
ally accepted standards, below which eggs are not considered 
first class. 

They should be uniform in size, shape, and color; free from 
ridges, excrescences, or weak shells. The practice of hatching 
abnormal eggs tends to increase the lack of that uniformity 
which is so desirable from every stand-point, because pullets 
hatched from small or odd-shaped eggs are likely to produce 
abnormal eggs in turn. 

Philips 3 found as a result of four seasons work during 
which several thousand chicks were hatched, that on the aver- 
age it took 1.83 eggs to hatch one Leghorn chick, and 4.57 
eggs to produce a twenty-four weeks old Leghorn pullet. 
With the heavier breeds under average management condi- 
tions it will be safe to allow at least seven or eight eggs for 
each mature pullet desired. 

Predetermining Fertility and Sex. — The manifest advantage 
of being able to ascertain whether an egg is fertile and if 
hatched what the sex of the chick will be, by an external 
examination, is so great that it has led to much speculation. 
Out of this speculation have grown " sure methods" of accom- 
plishing it. Needless to say these "methods" are unsup- 
ported by experimental evidence, and are practically worth- 
less. The one which is given widest credence is that the shape 
of the shell is an indication of the sex of chick that will 
result if the egg is hatched. It has long since been found that 
the long, narrow eggs popularly credited with hatching only 

1 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Poul. Husb., vol. iii, No. 9. 

2 West Virginia Circular, No. 25. 3 Purdue Bulletin, No. 196. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 191 

males in the long run give about 50 per cent females, and 
that the short, round eggs supposed to produce a preponder- 
ance of females, when hatched in large numbers produce a 
little above or below 50 per cent of males. 

The position of the air cell during incubation, though not so 
widely preached, is equally unreliable as a means of pre- 
judging sex. It has been maintained that when the air cell 
develops so that the long axis of the egg passes through the 
approximate center of the air space the sex of the developing 
embryo is male. When the long axis is very much eccentric 
and the cell extends down the side of the egg the sex of the 
embryo is said to be female. The author had occasion to 
examine several hundred eggs for the purpose of observing 
the relative numbers of each sex hatched from eggs containing 
each type of air cell. Unfortunately the detailed data have 
not been preserved, but the sex of the resulting chicks in 
each case was represented in nearly equal numbers. 

The only means of predetermining the fertility of an 
egg that has had any very general acceptance has been by 
determining the relative specific gravity of eggs. 

The claim is made that the eggs showing a great specific 
gravity are fertile, while those whose specific gravity is 
much less are infertile. As a matter of fact, these differences 
between the eggs of certain hens may be observed whether 
the hens have been mated with males and are laying eggs 
that are presumably fertile, or whether they have been 
separated from male birds for several weeks. While there 
does appear to be a correlation between the specific gravity 
of an egg and the vigor of the hen laying it on the one hand, 
and the chick hatching from it on the other, there is no notice- 
able correlation between the fact of a great specific gravity 
and the fact of fertilization. 

Care of Hatching Eggs. — At the time the fertile egg is laid 
it is usually in a fairly advanced stage of development from 
an embryological stand-point, having been incubated within 
the body of the hen for approximately twenty-four hours. 
It would seem that the ideal method of caring for hatching 
eggs would be to allow development to proceed without 
checking, by incubating the eggs at once without ever 



192 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



allowing them to become completely cool. Poultry keepers, 
however, are under the necessity of holding hatching eggs 
for a longer or shorter time, and are confronted with the 
very practical question of how to handle them during the 
period of suspended development with the least possible 
damage to their vitality and hatching power. They should 
be collected several times a day during February and March 
to prevent chilling. 

Table XXVII. — Relation of Time of Holding Hatching Eggs to 
Their Hatching Power. Summary op 189 Incubator Records — 
1914 to 1919. (Data of Waite.) 



1 

Age of eggs — days Number 
eggs set 


Number 
eggs fertile 


Number 

eggs 
hatched 


Total eggs 
hatched 
(per cent) 


Fertile eggs 
hatched 
(per cent) 


1261 


1200 


774 


61.38 


64.50 


1 








1651 


1591 


1068 


64.68 


67.12 


2 










2280 


2182 


1475 


64.69 


67.59 


3 










2371 


2274 


1535 


64.74 


67.50 


4 










2397 


2373 


1565 


65.29 


65.95 


5 








■><■■ 


1942 


1321 


64.31 


68.02 


6 










2324 


2215 


1394 


59.99 


62.93 


7 










2004 


1898 


1217 


60.72 


64.12 


8 










1548 


1439 


857 


55.36 


59.55 


9 










1247 


1144 


675 


54.12 


59.00 


10 








1127 


1046 


586 


51.99 


56.02 


11 










1086 


980 


554 


51.01 


56.53 


12 










818 


748 


435 


53.17 


58.15 


13 










678 


638 


336 


49.55 


52.66 


14 










633 


575 


272 


42.97 


47 . 30 


15 










499 


451 


207 


41.48 


45.89 


16 










462 


450 


198 


42.85 


44.00 


17 










335 


299 


132 


37.18 


44.14 


18 










338 


296 


137 


40.53 


46.28 


19 










350 


306 


122 


34.85 


39.86 


20 










205 


166 


67 


32 . 68 


40.36 


21 










150 


112 


37 


24.66 


33.04 


22 










120 


80 


23 


19.16 


28.75 


23 










132 


91 


27 


20.45 


29.67 


24 










72 


59 


10 


13.89 


16.94 


25 










70 


56 


12 


17.14 


21.42 


26 










78 


61 


18 


23.08 


29.50 


27 










69 


52 


12 


17.39 


23.07 


28 










56 


38 


3 


5.36 


7.89 


Total . . 26,415 


24,762 


15,069 


57.04 


60.85 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 



193 



Time of Holding Hatching Eggs.— Holding eggs for incuba- 
ting purposes is a necessary evil to be practised as little as 
possible. Two weeks is generally considered as the outside 
limit of holding eggs under the very best conditions that will 
give satisfactory hatching results. Waite 1 found, as shown 
in Table XXVII, that the percentage of eggs not hatching 
showed a fairly consistent increase for all periods longer than 
one week. 

Fig. 96 



Per 

Cent 

70 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

36 

30 

25 

20 

19 

10 

5 

























! 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 J 1 1 1 1 1 
































Chicks hatched from fertile eggs — • — ■-*- 
Chicks hatched from total eggs set -o- — c— 








f 










\ 




























































































































^ 


?.-~ 


<" 


s. S 


























































\ 






























- 






























- 


■*>■ 


\ 






















































\ 




\ 


























































~> 




























































\ 


















.TotaJ eggs incubated 26,415 
Percentage of eggs fertile 93.7 
Percentage of eggs hatched 57.04 
Percentage fertile eggs hatched 60.85 
























\ 
\ 










\\ 
























\ 1 


fj! 


/ 


\ 














































































































V 


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 2S 26 27 28 
Age of eggs - days. M "'if "_£. 



A graphic presentation of Table XXVII. (After Waite ) 



Temperature for Holding Hatching Eggs.- — The belief that 
the earlier the development that is under way at the time of 
laying is checked, the better are the chances of holding eggs 
successfully for hatching, has led to the general practice 
among poultrymen of gathering the eggs often during the 
incubating season and putting them in a cool place. 

Edwards, 2 as the result of a series of comprehensive experi- 
ments, has fixed the physiologic zero of the hen's egg at a 
temperature lying between 20° and 21° C. This is the practi- 
cal equivalent of saying that an egg will start to incubate 
at a temperature lying between 68° and 70° F., and that to 



13 



1 Maryland Bulletin, No. 233. 

2 American Journal of Physiology, vol. vi, No. 35. 



194 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

insure the complete checking of development, eggs must 
be kept in a temperature below 68° F. Practical experience 
seems to indicate that eggs held in a temperature that is 
even as possible, lying between the limits of 55° and 65° F., 
give best results. Just what the temperature is at which 
eggs begin to show the effects of chilling has not been deter- 
mined so far as the author is aware. The place most likely 
to furnish the best holding condition is a cool, well-ventilated 
cellar. 

Turning Hatching Eggs. — As already pointed out, the yolk, 
with the germ spot uppermost, tends to float on the albumen. 
It is prevented from coming in actual contact with the shell 
membrane by the dense layer of albumen which surrounds 
it. When left in the same position for a considerable time 
a constant though gentle tendency upward parts the coat of 
dense albumen and allows the germinal disc to come in 
contact with the shell membrane. With evaporation 
constantly taking place the tiny embryo becomes adhered 
to the membrane and is destroyed. When the eggs are not 
allowed to remain in the same position, but are turned 
fairly frequently, a new point of contact is given, and more 
albumen brought between the germ and the shell membrane. 

Jackson 1 reports, as the result of experiment, that after 
the first two weeks there was a distinct advantage in keeping 
eggs on their side and turning daily over, keeping them in 
any other position or without turning. It is considered good 
practice to turn all eggs daily during the whole time they are 
held. 

Washing Hatching Eggs. — Eggs that are stained or dirty 
are frequently washed with the hope of increasing their 
hatching power. As a protection against disease, hatching 
eggs are often washed in alcohol or other disinfectant. 

Washing eggs destroys their protective coating, called the 
cuticle or bloom, and allows more rapid evaporation. As 
shown elsewhere, when artificial incubation is practised, 
evaporation is likely to be abnormally rapid, and any practice 
which increases evaporation should be looked upon with 

1 Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 120. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 195 

suspicion. Jackson 1 found in a test where 440 eggs were 
incubated in several groups, and half of each group were 
washed and half unwashed, that the unwashed eggs hatched 
12.5 per cent more vigorous chicks, than the washed eggs. 

Where eggs are broken in a nest and their contents smeared 
over other eggs in the nest, it is very likely to prevent the 
latter from hatching. In this case, washing appears to be 
the lesser of two evils. 

In cases where it seems advisable to disinfect hatching 
eggs, they should be dipped, instead of sponged or washed, 
and allowed to dry without being rubbed. 

Resting Shipped Eggs. — Persons shipping eggs any distance 
for hatching, frequently furnish instructions to the effect 
that the eggs are to be unpacked, placed in a normal position 
on their sides, and rested twenty-four hours before setting, 
for the purpose of allowing the germ to resume its normal 
position at the uppermost point of the yolk. Such resting 
does no harm beyond increasing the holding period by so 
long, but it remains to be proved that the eggs cannot rest 
just as successfully in an incubator or under a hen as in 
any other place. 

Apparently the only data on this point are those given by 
Gowell 2 who shipped two similar lots of eggs a distance of 
514 miles. From the lot of 65 eggs which were rested twenty- 
four hours, 15 chicks were secured, while from the other lot 
put immediately into the incubator 22 chicks were obtained. 
The numbers are too small to be conclusive but there ap- 
peared to be no marked advantage at least, in resting the 
eggs. 

Warming Hatching Eggs. — Under natural conditions all 
eggs but the one laid last are of necessity held for hatching 
for a longer or shorter time. Jackson 3 observed that very 
often the oldest egg in a clutch was frequently the first to 
hatch. He further noted the fact that in laying, the average 
time spent on the nest was approximately sixty minutes. 
As a result of two years' work, he found that by placing 
eggs, being held for hatching for a considerable time, under 

1 Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 120. 

2 Maine Station Report, 1902. 3 Ibid, 



196 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

hens for sixty minutes daily during the holding period, he 
increased the number of vigorous chicks by 10 per cent. 

He states that he "noticed further in handling eggs in 
incubators both years, that the embryos of the warmed 
eggs, after being placed in the incubator, presented a dis- 
tinctly different appearance from those eggs not warmed, 
being more clear cut, larger in size at the same period of 
incubation, more active, and giving every appearance of being 
stronger and more vigorous. 

" Considering both tests, it seems apparent that there is no 
particular gain to be secured from warming eggs that are 
to be held for a period of not more than ten or twelve days, 
although this requires further investigation. Apparently 
the vitality of the embryo suffers when held for a longer 
period." 

Jackson suggests no practical method of warming eggs held 
for hatching purposes, and no good method has been devised. 

A possible partial explanation of the above may be had 
in the findings of Bushnell and Maurer, 1 who report that 
bacteria found in normal eggs do not develop readily at 
blood (or incubating) temperatures, but do develop at ordi- 
nary room temperatures. As they suggest, when eggs are 
kept for hatching at ordinary temperatures, enough develop- 
ment of the organisms may take place during the time 
intervening between the laying of the eggs and their incuba- 
tion, to bring about decomposition enough to injure the 
delicate embryo chick by vitiating its food-supply. Infertile 
eggs presumably frequently infected do not decompose when 
kept at incubator temperatures for three weeks. 

Disinfecting Purchased Eggs. — Because of the prevalence of 
certain chick diseases, and the fact that their germs are found 
adhering to the shells, some poultrymen are disinfecting 
their eggs by dipping them in 92 per cent alcohol or in a 
2 to 3 per cent solution of a standard stock dip. This is a 
safe precaution in all cases where eggs are secured from 
flocks with whose history one is not perfectly familiar. It is 
unnecessary in cases where the eggs come from stock that 

1 Unpublished data of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 197 

has been strong and vigorous for years and without serious 
outbreak of disease of any kind. It should be recognized as 
simply a precautionary measure to eliminate any disease 
germs that may be on the outside of the egg, and not in any 
measure a sure preventive of chick diseases. 

Incubation Periods. — The number of days necessary for 
the incubation of the eggs of the various species of poultry 
are as follows: chickens, varying from 19 for light breeds to 
21 for heavy breeds; turkey 28, varying from 26 to 30; all 
ducks except the Muscovy 28, varying from 26 to 32; Mus- 
covy ducks 33 to 35; goose 30, varying from 27 to 33; guinea, 
varying from 26 to 30, and pigeon 17 from the day the second 
egg is laid, but varying at times from 16 to 20 days. 

Relative Hatching Efficiency of Hens and Incubators. — The 
time has passed when the question of the desirability of 
having an incubator on a farm where upward of one hundred 
and fifty chickens are raised annually is any more debatable 
than the desirability of having a cream separator, seed 
tester, or any similar piece of modern farm equipment. 
Hens are uncertain hatchers. Broodiness depends very much 
upon the season and the condition of the hens. A late spring 
means late laying, late setting, 1 and hatching. The time of 
hatching determines quite largely whether pullets are in 
laying condition by the following winter. And further, it 
is usually difficult to secure enough broody hens at one time 
to handle a very large number of eggs. 

Concerning the efficiency of incubators as hatchers, 
Pearl 2 makes the following statement, which would be 
concurred in spirit by the majority of practical poultrymen 
and investigators. 

"In the experience of this station, with proper manage- 
ment during and subsequent to incubation, the chicks so 
produced are fully the equal in constitutional vigor, average 
duration of life, and productivity, of hen-hatched chicks. 

1 The author takes the position with reference to the use of the terms 
"sit" and "set," or their derivatives, as describing the act of a broody hen 
in incubating eggs, that good use, rather than any rule of technical gram- 
marians, should be the test applied. The terms "set," "setters," and 
"setting" are used throughout this work. 

2 Poultry Management at Maine Station, 1913. 



198 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

"For more than ten years past all chicks in the Maine 
Experiment Station's poultry plant have been hatched in 
incubators. There has yet to appear any reason for going 
back to the old system of hatching with hens." 

Payne, 1 on the other hand, found in contrasting natural 
and artificial incubation that several interesting differences 
occur. The incubator according to his data appears to be 
more efficient than the hen during the first week of incubation, 
judged by the number of embryos dying, but is conspicuously 
inferior during the last week. 

Natural Incubation. — The principles involved in natural and 
artificial hatching are the same. While the effort in artificial 
hatching is to furnish the conditions found in nature, it should 
be recognized that nature rarely furnishes optimum degrees 
of all conditions at the same time. Recognizing the proper 
conditions of successful hatching, one may assist nature in 
combining all conditions at their best. 

Kind of Hen to Set. — The best hens for setting are those of 
medium weight, such as are found among the American and 
English breeds. They are fairly persistent setters, but are 
not so heavy as to be clumsy, nor so heavily feathered as to 
make the eradication of vermin difficult. The Asiatic breeds 
are very persistent setters, but are so heavy and clumsy that 
the loss of eggs from breakage is considerable. Their long, 
heavy feathers furnish a safe harbor for lice. 

The Mediterranean breeds seldom become broody. Such 
individuals as do take to the nest are unreliable and likely 
to leave it permanently with little or no provocation. 

The Hatching Nest. — The nest for hatching should be 
roomy and secluded, and placed where it is cool and the 
ventilation good. It should be at least sixteen inches square 
by six inches deep, and placed where the hen will not need to 
fly or jump into it. If placed on the floor there is little danger 
of broken eggs if the nest is made right. 

The nesting material should be of such consistency that it 
will neither pack, as does dirt, sawdust, or planer shavings, 
nor become tangled with the hen's feet so that she is likely to 

1 Jour. Am. Inst. Assn. and Invest, in Poul. Husb., vol. vi, No. 2. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 199 

wreck the nest upon leaving it to eat, as in the case of 
excelsior, rags, or long shavings. At the same time it should 
not be given to knotting or balling up, but soft and pliable 
enough to conform more or less closely to the body of the 
hen. Oat straw is probably the most satisfactory nesting 
material, with wheat straw or hay as second choice. 

In placing the straw in the nest, care should be taken to 
round the nest out so that the eggs will roll apart readily 
when the hen steps among them, but not to leave it so flat 
that the eggs will not roll together of their own accord. 

The nesting material should be renewed for every hatch 
or when eggs are broken, and the nest carefully disinfected. 
A vigilant lookout must be kept for mites about the nest 
box during the setting period, and prompt and thorough 
measures for eradication taken upon their appearance. 
During the warm weather, these pests multiply so rapidly as 
to greatly deplete a setting hen's vitality, even causing them 
to die on the nest. 

It is good practice to place a teaspoonful of a good coal tar 
dip in the bottom of the nest before putting in the straw. 
Many successful poultrymen follow the practice of putting a 
damp sod beneath the straw for the purpose of furnishing 
moisture where it is not possible to make the nest on the 
ground. 

Management of Setting Hens. — When more than one hen 
is setting at the same time and place, it is a safe plan to confine 
them to the nest and allow them to come off once daily at a 
regular time to feed and dust. If all are set at the same time 
it makes little difference whether they return to the same 
nests or not. The material used for confining them should 
allow a free circulation of air, such as poultry netting. 

Clean, cool water and plenty of whole grain, grit, and 
charcoal should be available for the hen when she leaves the 
nest. Nothing in the nature of sloppy food, which tends 
toward bowel looseness, should be fed. 

If possible a setting hen should be rendered absolutely 
louse-free before being placed on the hatching nest, as lice 
form one of the commonest and greatest sources of danger 
to hen-hatched chicks. She should be thoroughly dusted 



200 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

with good insect or louse powder before being placed on the 
eggs, and the process repeated at the end of the first and 
second weeks of the incubating period. It is unsafe to dust 
the hens just before hatching because some of the commercial 
powders are of such strength that they will kill chicks under 
a week old. 

Care should be taken to be particularly thorough in working 
the powder well into the feathers, under the wings, and the 
fluff around the vent. These are the regions which usually 
show the heaviest infestation. 

It is always a safe precaution to grease the heads of hen- 
hatched chicks with lard, in order to preclude the possibility 
of head lice. 

Number of Eggs per Hen. — The number of eggs that should 
be given to one hen is determined by the size of the hen and 
the season of the year. The usual number constituting a 
setting is fifteen. In cold weather, however, eleven to 
thirteen is all that one hen of medium size can cover success- 
fully. When the weather is warm, fifteen, or if it is very 
warm, seventeen eggs may be placed under a hen with 
safety. 

Breaking up Broody Hens.— When hens that are not desired 
for setting become broody, and it is desired to keep them 
from the nests of the layers and to induce them to lay again 
as soon as possible, they should be confined in a coop that 
offers no opportunity for nesting. The broody coop shown in 
Figure 155, having a slatted bottom, is useful for this purpose. 

During the time that the birds are confined they should be 
well fed and cared for, so that they will soon be in laying 
trim. For all but the heaviest breeds a few days of confine- 
ment on a bare floor with no nesting material will be sufficient 
to overcome the desire for setting. The starvation and other 
mistreatments sometimes recommended are not only in- 
human, but are also bad practice from the standpoint of 
production. 

History of Artificial Incubation. — The hatching of chicks 
by artificial means has been practised by the Chinese and 
Egyptians since centuries before Christ. In Egypt, tradition 
credits the invention to the ancient priests of the Temple of 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 201 

Isis. The methods used from the earliest times are still in 
use. 

The first account of these methods is given in The Voiage 
and Travaile of Sir John Maundeville, Kt., written before 
1356 a.d. A Frenchman, Reaumur, in a treatise on The 
Art of Hatching and Bringing up Domestic Fowls, published 
in 1750, gives a detailed description of the Egyptian incuba- 
tory, which tallies quite closely with that of the United 
States Consul-General Cardwell, of Cairo, made in 1890. 

Fig. 97 




Ancient Egyptian hatchery. 

The general plan of the Egyptian hatcheries is shown by 
Figures 97 and 98, taken from Reaumur. The one described 
by Cardwell was "constructed of sun-dried brick, mortar, and 
earth." It "was a structure seventy feet long, sixty feet 
wide, and sixteen feet high. It was provided with twelve 
compartments, or incubators, each capable of holding 7500 
eggs, making a total capacity of 90,000 eggs undergoing 
incubation at one time." Heat is furnished by fires in grates 
built in the rooms where the eggs are hatched. The proper 
temperature is judged by the attendant by his sense of heat 
and cold, and regulated by means of ventilators in the walls. 
The eggs are tested for fertility on the tenth day with the 
palm of the hand, or by placing against the face. Those 
noticeably cold are regarded as infertile, and discarded. 
The Egyptian ovens are public institutions and run on a toll 



202 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



basis. From the fact that two chicks are usually expected 
from three eggs, this method is evidently fairly satisfactory. 




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The theory has been advanced that because of continued 
artificial incubation the fowls of Egypt have developed 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 203 

the non-setting traits found in the Mediterranean breeds 
today. 

The Chinese method, still in vogue, is equally primitive. 
The ovens are much smaller, and made of wickerwork 
plastered with mud. They are heated by fires in the same 
compartment with the eggs. 

Various attempts have been made to perfect artificial 
means of incubation during the last three or four centuries. 
In 1750, Reaumur hatched chicks successfully by surrounding 
a cask containing eggs with heating horse manure. 

In 1770 John Champion, of Berwick-upon-Tweed, England, 
hatched eggs by passing flues carrying hot air through the 
room in which the eggs were. In 1777 Bonneman, a French 
physician, established hatching ovens in Nauterre, whereby 
the heat was conducted from a fire to the eggs by the 
circulation of hot water. 

The first American incubator was invented in 1844 and 
patented in England under the title of Cantelo's Patent 
Incubator. This was also a hot-water-heated machine, the 
water being heated by a charcoal fire. The following year 
a regulating device, whereby the temperature of the egg 
chamber could be controlled, was invented by M. Vallee, 
a poultryman, near Paris. It was not until about 1870, 
however, that incubators began to engage serious attention 
in this country, when a patent was awarded to one Jacob 
Graves for an incubator and artificial mother, which was 
followed by James Rankin, of southeastern Massachusetts, 
with a machine that was guaranteed to hatch as many chicks 
as could be done with hens. From that time the increase in 
patents, ideas, and improvements have been enormous, but 
it is only within the last twenty years that incubators have 
been perfected in this country to such an extent as to be 
practical successes. 

Value of the Incubator. — Generally speaking the most prof- 
itable branch of poultry is the production of winter eggs, 
which is very largely dependent upon maturing the pullets 
so that they will come into full laying before cold weather 
sets in. To do this the time of hatching must not be 
dependent upon seasonal conditions but under perfect con- 
trol. The incubator is always in working order. 



204 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



The labor of caring for one hundred eggs in an incubator 
is considerably less than caring for the same number under 
hens. By the use of a properly disinfected incubator it is 
possible to start chicks out absolutely free from vermin, and, 
if brooders are used, to keep them so until nearly grown. 

Types of Incubators. — Incubators are usually classified 
according to the medium used in transmitting the heat from 
the heater to the egg chamber into "hot-air" and "hot- 
water" machines. 

In actual efficiency there appeares to be no difference 
between the two types. Hot-air machines are more quickly 
but not more accurately regulated. While the hot-water 
type is less sensitive to outside changes of temperature, 
once affected it is much slower in regaining the proper 
temperature. 

|Fig. 99 




Mammoth incubator. 



(Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment 
Station.) 



Incubator Sizes. — Most farm incubators range in capacity 
from fifty eggs to four hundred and fifty. The sizes ranging 
between one hundred and fifty and two hundred egg capacity 
have trays that may be conveniently handled and are not 
so large as to have great differences in temperature between 
opposite sides or corners of the egg chamber. 

Where the capacity runs much above three hundred there 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 205 

is likely to be a difference in temperature of several degrees 
between opposite corners, and the trays are heavy and 
awkward for the ordinary person to handle, when they 
are full of eggs. 

The so-called mammoth incubators, with egg capacities 
running into the thousands, are made up of a larger or smaller 
number of ordinary sized incubator units built together. 
Aside from the fact that there is a central heating system, 
each unit is independent of every other unit, having its own 
regulator, nursery, and trays. It is entirely possible to be 
bringing off a hatch in one compartment and just starting 
another one in the next one. 

Principles of Operation. — So far as present knowledge 
indicates, successful incubation depends primarily upon four 
conditions. These are (1) temperature, (2) moisture, (3) 
ventilation, and (4) position. The principles involved in 
the operation of incubators have to do with making these 
conditions favorable. 

Place of Operation. — The place of operation has much to 
do with furnishing proper incubating conditions. It is 
highly desirable (1) that it shall not be subject to frequent 
or sudden changes in temperature; (2) that an abundance 
of fresh air may be admitted, while the heavy gases near 
the floor and the light gases near the ceiling have means of 
escape; (3) that the relative humidity be rather high; (4) 
that it be impossible for the sunlight to strike the incubator 
at any time of day. 

A cellar, and particularly a cave cellar, having a grade 
entrance and a top ventilator, will come about as near meeting 
these conditions as any room found on the farm. Outside 
changes do not quickly affect it, it is likely to be reasonabfy 
damp, does not admit the sunlight, allows the light gases 
to escape above and the heavy ones that have settled to the 
floor to flush out every time the door is opened. 

Temperature. — The temperature at which eggs are incu- 
bated naturally depends primarily upon the temperature 
of the setting hen. As will be seen in Table XXVIII, this 
temperature is quite variable between different hens on the 
same day and for the same hen on different days. This 



206 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



table was made by Eycleshymer 1 from observations made 
by placing thermometers in nests, so that they would come 
in contact with the body of the setting hens. The Roman 
numerals designate the hens, while the arabic numerals 
indicate the days of incubation. 



Table XXVIII. 



I 

II 
III 
IV 



102.1 
103.0 
102.0 
101.5 



103.0 
104.0 
102.0 
102.5 



103.0 
103.5 
103.0 
102.5 



103.8 
104.5 
103.0 
103.0 



105.0 
104.5 
105.0 
103.5 



104.5 
104.0 
105.0 
104.0 



105.0 
105.0 
104.5 
104.5 





8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


I . . . . 


105.0 


106.2 


106.0 


105.0 


104.5 


105.0 


105.5 


II ... . 


105.5 


104.5 


104.6 


104.6 


104.5 


104.6 


104.2 


Ill ... . 


104.0 


104.5 


104.0 


104.0 


105.0 


104.0 


103.6 


IV ... . 


104.5 


105.0 


105.0 


104.8 


105.0 


104.5 


105.0 



I 

II 
III 

IV 



15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


104.5 


105.5 


104.8 


105.0 


104.5 


105.5 


105.0 


104.8 


105.0 


105.0 


105.0 


104.0 


104.0 


105.2 


104.2 


103.5 


103.0 


104.0 


104.8 


105.0 


105.0 


104.5 


104.5 


105.0 



Eycleshymer 2 also made observations of eggs in relation 
to the temperature of the setting hen. The temperature 
of the hen was secured as before, and that of the eggs by 
breaking the shell immediately over the embryo and inserting 
the bulb of the thermometer. The results are tabulated in 
Table XXIX. It will be noted that the temperature of the 
egg is influenced throughout by the temperature of the fowl, 
and that while there is an average difference of over 3° the 
first four days of the incubation period, there is an average 
difference of lf° the last four days of the period. This 



Biological Bulletin, May, 1907. 



Ibid. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 



207 



difference is doubtless due to the increasing animal heat 
generated by the growing embryo. 

It should be recognized that this is but a single test, 
which should be supplemented by many further tests before 
drawing too definite a conclusion. It leads the way, however, 
to an understanding of the principle of governing the tem- 
perature of the incubator. That principle is to carry such 
a temperature in the egg chamber that the egg will be as 
nearly as possible the same temperature as when under a hen. 









Table 


XXIX. 












l 

102.2 
98.0 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 

104.6 
101.8 


8 


9 


10 


Hen . . . 

Egg . . . 


103.0 
100.2 


103.5 
100.5 


104.0 
100.5 


103.8 
100.4 


105.0 
101.0 


104.5 
102.5 


105.0 
101.6 


105.0 
102.0 




11 12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 

104.8 
103.0 


19 20 


Hen . . . 

Egg . . . 


104.8 
101.8 


105.2 
102.2 


104.5 
102.0 


105.0 
102.5 


105.2 
102.0 


105.0 
103.0 


104.6 
102.4 


104.5 104.5 
103.0|103.0 



In carrying the egg chamber temperature at 102° to 103° 
the first half and 103° to 104.5° the remainder of the period, 
Eycleshymer 1 observed the temperatures shown in Table 
XXX. 

Table XXX. 



Inc'b 
Egg . 



102.0 
99.5 



102.0 103.0 102.0 102.5 103.0 102.5 
100.0 101.0 100.5 100.5 101.0 100.0 



102.0 103.0 103.5 
100.0101.0 101.5 



Inc'b 
Egg . 



11 



. 103.0 
. 101.5 



12 



103.5 
101.8 



13 



15 



16 



17 



104.0 103.5 104.0 104.5 104.0 103.5 104.0 104.5 
102.0 102.5 103.0 103.0 103.0 102.5 102.5 103.5 



IS 



19 



20 



1 Biological Bulletin, May, 1907. 



208 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

In this trial, 85 per cent of the fertile eggs set hatched. 
Eggs destroyed for the purpose of taking temperatures were 
not counted. 

As the result of careful and rather extended experiment 
Philips 1 recommends temperatures of 101° to 102° and 103° 
F. for the first, second and third weeks of incubation respec- 
tively, using a standing thermometer with the bulb on a level 
with the top of the eggs but not touching them. It is quite 
possible that the temperature requirement varies with the 
vigor of the breeding stock and one must not necessarily be 
guided by rule. The chicks should be brought out promptly. 
As Lamson and Kirkpatrick 2 remark " one chick hatched on 
the twentieth day is worth two hatched on the twenty- 
second." 

Regarding the precise effects of high and low temperatures 
upon the developing embryo there is little information. 
Alsop 3 found that temperatures between 103° F. and 108° F. 
produced 90 per cent of the embryos with abnormal nervous 
systems by the seventy-second hour of incubation or earlier. 
Of these abnormalities 46 per cent were in the head region 
and 54 per cent were in the neural tube. In those eggs 
incubated at 94° F. to 101° F. 67 per cent of the embryos 
had abnormal nervous s} r stems by the seventy-second hour. 
Seventeen per cent of these were in the head region and 83 
per cent were in the neural tube. Eggs from the same hens 
incubated at usual temperatures produced 6| per cent 
abnormalities by the seventy-second hour or earlier. These 
abnormalities apparently differed from those noted above. 

It would be interesting to carry eggs incubated at abnormal 
temperatures for the first seventy-two hours, through the 
rest of the incubation period at normal temperatures to 
determine what proportion, if any, of these abnormalities 
were subsequently overcome. 

Cooling Eggs. — The custom of cooling eggs during the 
period of incubation has arisen from a desire to imitate 

1 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Fowl Husb., vol. iv, No. 9. 

2 Storr's (Conn.) Bulletin, No. 95. 

3 The Anatomical Record, vol. xv, No. 5, 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 209 

Nature. During the time that a setting hen is away from her 
nest for the purpose of feeding the eggs become more or 
less cool. Because this happens in Nature it is assumed that 
better hatches will result if the eggs are cooled when arti- 
ficially incubated. 

There are two reasons given why cooling strengthens the 
hatching power of eggs. It is argued that just as persons, 
even in cold weather, seek relief from the constant heat of 
internal combustion by drinking cold water, so the embryo 
needs relief from the continued high temperature of incuba- 
tion. 

What would seem to be more reasonable is the suggestion 
that by cooling, the contents of the egg contracts somewhat, 
thus drawing fresh air through the pores of the shell for the 
ever-increasing demands of the embryo. 

Atwood 1 suggests that " as chick embryos behave like cold- 
blooded animals, reducing the temperature of the egg de- 
creases the vital activity and it is difficult to conceive any 
valid reason for slowing down this activity." 

Lamson 2 compared cooling and not cooling, keeping 
keeping records on between six and seven thousand eggs. 
"The cooling method was to begin cooling on the third day 
and cool each night and morning for five minutes, then the 
following day the time was increased one minute and so on 
until the eighteenth day." 

Sixty-seven per cent of the fertile eggs hatched in the 
incubators which were cooled and 70 per cent of the fertile 
eggs hatched where they were not cooled. 

Five hundred chicks, half of which had been cooled 
during incubation, and half not cooled, were watched for the 
first four weeks during which 34 chicks died. Twenty 
were from the cooled eggs and 14 from the uncooled. 

He further found that eggs from strong stock would stand 
from four to five hours at 50° F. after the first twenty-four 
hours of incubation. From this point on the time could 
be increased up to fifteen hours on the tenth to twelfth days. 

1 West Virginia Circular, No. 25. 

2 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest. Poul. Husb., vol. iv, No. 5. 

14 



210 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



After the seventeenth day continued exposure at 50° F. 
caused the death of the embryos before hatching. 

Moisture. — As the temperature maintained in the 
incubator is determined by the temperature of the eggs 
when incubated naturally, so the proper relative humidity 
of the egg chamber would appear to be that which limits 
the evaporation of the eggs to a normal rate. It should 
be recognized, however, that even with natural incubation 
the rate of evaporation will be different under different 
conditions. Just what the optimum rate of evaporation or 
the normal relative humidity is has not been definitely 
determined. 

Normal Moisture Loss. — Atwood 1 computed, from obser- 
vations made upon eggs incubated under hens, that the 
normal loss of each of the first nineteen days for 100 eggs 
that hatched was as follows: 







Table XXXI. 






>ays. 


Ounces. 


Days. 


Ounces. 


Days. 


Ounces 


1 . . 


1.65 


7 . 


11.72 


13 . 


22.10 


2 


3.31 


8 . 


13.44 


14 


23.88 


3 . . 


4.96 


9 . 


15.16 


15 . 


25.66 


4. . 


6.62 


10 


16.88 


16 . 


27.44 


5. . 


8.28 


11 


18.60 


17 . 


29.21 


6. . 


10.00 


12 . 


20.33 


18 . 

19 . 


30.99 
32.77 



The difference in moisture loss between fertile and infertile 
eggs is shown graphically in Figure 100. 

Assuming that these eggs averaged two ounces each, the 
loss for the nineteen days is 16.3 per cent. This work was 
done in West Virginia. 

Dryden 2 found that in Utah, where the atmosphere is very 
much less humid, the loss of weight in eggs under hens 
was 14.87 per cent. 

Eycleshymer 3 found that the normal loss of an egg during 
natural incubation was 13 per cent, but that healthy chicks 
could be hatched when the evaporation was reduced to 
9 per cent by the introduction of moisture or increased 20 



1 West Virginia Bulletin Nos. 73 and 98 

2 Oregon Bulletin No. 100. 3 Biological Bulletin. May, 1907. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 



211 



per cent by reducing the relative humidity of the egg 
chamber. 

Such evidence seems to indicate that there are certain 
fairly narrow limits between which the rate or amount of 
evaporation may be considered normal. Before these limits 
are definitely determined it will be necessary to have many 
more observations. At present it appears that the limit lies 
between 13 and 16.3 per cent for the incubation period. 



Fig. 100 































































































































, 


- 
































































," 
































































'* 


r' 
































































y 
































































s 


• 
































































,' 


































































































































*' 
































































s 


V 
































































1^1 
































































s'. 
































































r ' 


y 
































































'-> 
























INFERTILE 


EGGS 




























,-s 
































H 






































































































S 
































































,yT 





































































































































































































2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 
OUNCES 

Showing relative evaporation in fertile and infertile eggs. 

Artificial Supply of Moisture. — The desirability of intro- 
ducing moisture into the egg chamber during incubation 
is a question upon which incubator manufacturers, successful 
operators, and experimental data are in mutual disagreement. 
It appears from all evidence at hand that the question is 
one of local management, with due regard to climatic con- 
dition. 

In West Virginia Atwood 1 obtained the results as shown 
in Table XXXII. 

It will be noted that more chicks were hatched when no 
moisture was used, that the percentage mortality was the 



1 West Virginia Bulletin No 124. 



212 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

same in both cases, while the advantage in weight of the 
moisture chicks was so slight as to be practically negligible. 
It should also be noted that in the case of the moisture 
chicks, evaporation was much restricted as compared with the 
calculated normal loss. (Calculations from Table XXXI.) 

Table XXXII.— Result of Incubating with and without Moisture 

No moisture Moisture 

used. used. 

Number of eggs incubated . . 2860 2860 

Number of chicks hatched . . . 2012 1943 

Total loss of weight in eggs . . 44.49 pounds 29.41 pounds 

Normal loss as calculated ... 46.77 " 46.77 

Departure from normal loss of weight 2.28 17.36 
Average weight of chicks per 100 

when removed from incubator 8.44 8.79 
Average weight of chicks per 100 

at second weighing .... 35.70 36.20 

Total deaths from all causes . 415.00 402.00 

Per cent, died of all hatched . .. 20.60 20.60 

Lewis 1 found that under Massachusetts conditions in 
a cellar showing an average relative humidity of 60 per cent, 
increasing the moisture content of the air in the incubator 
by means of sand trays increased the percentage hatch, 
produced chicks which weighed more at hatching and were 
more vigorous, and brought about a greater uniformity in 
hatching. Unfortunately neither the evaporation nor the 
relative humidity were recorded. 

Graham 2 reports that under Ontario conditions, of all eggs 
set, 11.2 per cent more were hatched when moisture was 
supplied than when it was not, and further that on an 
average, for every one hundred eggs set there were 16.6 per 
cent more chicks living at the age of four weeks that were 
hatched in moisture machines than in the case of those 
hatched in non-moisture machines. Here again there is 
no indication of the per cent, of relative humidity. 

In Oregon 3 Dryden secured the results shown in Table 
XXXIIL 

1 New Jersey Experiment Station Report, 1911. 

2 Ontario Bulletin No. 163. 3 Oregon Bulletin No. 100. 





Medium 


Maximum 


No moisture. 


moisture. 


moisture. 


. 700.0 


701.0 


712.0 


. 330.0 


424.0 


420.0 


. 47.1 


60.5 


59.0 


. 69.1 


82.1 


77.3 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 213 

Table XXXIII. — Effect of no Moisture, Medium Moisture, and 
Maximum Moisture. 

Number of eggs set 

Number of eggs hatched . 
Percentage of eggs set hatched 
Percentage of fertile eggs hatched 

In this case the relative humidity averaged 48.7 per cent 
in the non-moisture machines, 55.3 per cent in the medium 
moisture, and 64.7 per cent in the machines having the 
maximum supply of moisture. The corresponding wet-bulb 
temperatures were 84.5°, 87.6°, and 91°. At the same time 
the relative humidity of the room where the incubators 
were operated ranged from 66 per cent to 83.1 per cent, 
with an average of 73.4 per cent. 

In other observations made in Utah, where it was 
much drier and the relative humidity of the room where 
the incubators were operated was only 45.5 per cent on 
the average, Dryden 1 found that the maximum moisture 
machines had a relative humidity of but 55.5 per cent and 
gave the best results. 

Referring to the Oregon results, Dryden says: "In com- 
paring the weighings of incubator and hen eggs, the eggs 
in the non-moisture incubators lost 12 per cent more weight 
than the eggs under hens, but the moisture machine showed 
less loss. The results show that the dry machines "dry 
down" the eggs too much, while the maximum moisture 
machines show too little evaporation. Between the medium 
moisture machines and the hens there is considerable differ- 
ence. It is a question, however, if less evaporation of the 
eggs under the hens would not be desirable. It has never 
been demonstrated, to the writer's knowledge, whether it 
is better to set the hens on the ground than on dry nests. 
On the whole the result of the weighings agrees with the 
results of the hatching in showing the necessity of supplying 
a certain amount of moisture to the incubator." 

Hannas 2 found from a large number of measurements that 

1 Oregon Bulletin No. 100. 

2 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Poul. Husb. vol. v, No. 10. 



214 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

on a normal egg, the proper depth of the air cell on the eight 
day of incubation was f- f of an inch. On the fourteenth day 
it was about ■§ f of an inch, and on the nineteenth day it was 
■§Y of an inch. This means approximately a little less than 
a third of the contents of the egg is taken up by the air cell 
on the eighth day, a little over one-third on the fourteenth 
and about two-fifths on the nineteenth day. 

Best Means of Supplying Moisture. — Dryden 1 found that 
a tray of moist sand placed in the bottom of the nursery 
was more efficient in limiting the evaporation of eggs during 
incubation than was a tray of the same size and location 
filled with water. 

The average loss of weight by evaporation was 16.13 per 
cent when no sand was used and but 12.28 per cent when 
it was used. This seems to indicate that the sand furnishes 
a more efficient evaporating surface for moisture than does 
the unbroken surface of the water. 

Pearl 2 reports that "The most satisfactory way to supply 
this extra moisture where sand trays are not an integral part 
of the incubator, has been found to be by sprinkling the 
eggs with warm water twice a day. The water is warmed 
to a temperature of from 104° to 108° F. . . . The 
application of moisture is begun as soon as the eggs go into 
the machine, and is continued until the eighteenth day. 
Since adopting this procedure a very considerable reduction 
in the mortality of chicks in the shell has been effected." 

Dryden 3 has shown that when water is present it dissolves 
carbon dioxide which is normally present in an incubator. 
This tends to weaken the shells of the eggs making the 
exclusion of the chick easier, the calcium of the shell being 
soluble in water containing carbon dioxide. This may be a 
factor in Pearl's results. 

Ventilation. — The question of what constitutes proper 
ventilation for an incubator is one upon which there is little 
satisfactory experimental evidence. Yet restricting or aug- 

1 Utah Bulletin No. 102. 

2 Poultry Management at the Main Station, 1913. 

3 Utah Bulletin, No. 92. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 215 

menting ventilation has a profound effect upon the develop- 
ing embryos. Dareste (as quoted by Eycleshymer) 1 found 
that when " all apertures of the incubator were closed during 
incubation . . . nearly all the embryos died. It was 
further found that there had developed in the albumen a 
microscopic organism resembling the ordinary yeast plant." 

Gerloch (as quoted by Eycleshymer) 2 found that by 
diminishing the quantity of air during incubation he could 
cause dwarfing of the embryo. On the other hand, when 
shells were scraped very thin so that the supply of oxygen 
to the egg was increased the embryos "developed at a 
remarkably rapid rate, nearly twice as fast as in normal 
growth." 

Eycleshymer 3 took two incubators having similar venti- 
lating systems, which were believed to be inadequate. One 
was left as it was. The other was provided with two one-inch 
intake pipes which extended outside the building, and were 
so arranged that there was a continuous current of fresh 
air passing into the egg chamber. Eggs from the same hens 
were placed in each machine. The former hatched 44.3 
per cent of fertile eggs while the latter hatched 85.7 per cent. 

While the foregoing shows unmistakably that there is a 
ventilation problem it does not solve it. Common expe- 
rience rather than experimental evidence must be depended 
on in formulating our practice in ventilation. This is done 
in the suggested routine of management (see page 225). 

Position of the Egg. — It is generally understood among 
poultrymen that the position of the egg during the period 
of incubation has a profound influence upon the development 
of the chick. It is a matter of common knowledge that the 
head of the chick normally develops at the large end of the 
egg. As a usual thing, both in the nest and in the incubator, 
the large end of the egg is uppermost. This is due to the 
shape of the egg itself and possibly by the lessening of the 
specific gravity of the large end as incubation proceeds, due 
to the increasing size of the air cell. 

1 Biological Bulletin, May, 1907. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. 



216 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Occasionally, however, chicks develop with the head 
directed toward the small end. The cause of this, it is 
asserted, is allowing the egg to rest in the nest or incubator 
with the small end uppermost. Definite information on this 
point is scarce. Eycleshymer, 1 after conducting experiments 
which did not involve as large numbers as we could wish, 
came to the conclusion that the "position of the egg is a 
factor of little or no importance in natural incubation." 
He further concluded "that when the supply of good fresh 
air is inadequate the oblique position of the egg, thereby 
bringing the embryo in closer contact with the air chamber, 
is decidedly advantageous. Where there is an abundant 
supply of fresh air, there is but little to be gained through 
placing eggs obliquely." Where plenty of tray room is 
allowed, most of the eggs will be found to assume a position 
that is slightly oblique. 

In making a study of the effect of crowding eggs into the 
trays for the purpose of increasing the capacity of the 
incubator, Jackson 2 reached the conclusion that in the case 
of white eggs, which could be tested for fertility after three 
days of incubation, crowding so that the eggs stand on end 
until the first test results in no serious disadvantage. 

Turning Eggs. — The hen turns the eggs she is incubating 
in two ways. The first is by peculiar lateral movements of 
the body with which she settles on the nest after feeding, 
and which she continues from time to time throughout the 
day and probably throughout the night. The purpose of 
these lateral movements is presumably to seek a more 
comfortable position. The practical results are to bring 
the body in closer contact with the egg and so closer to the 
developing germ, and also to turn the egg. The second way 
is by what is incorrectly called "billing," in which the hen 
reaches under her body and rearranges the eggs with her 
beak. Payne's 3 recent observations of setting hens in glass 
nests have shown that the eggs were turned at least every 

1 Biological Bulletin. May, 1907. 

2 Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 120. 

3 Paper read before Thirteenth Annual Convention of American Associa- 
tion of Instructors and Investigators on Poultry Husbandry, 1920. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 217 

hour both day and night, and that they were completely 
rotated as many as ten times in two hours. 

Such observations as have been reported show that in 
artificial incubation fairly frequent turnings increase the 
hatching power of eggs. Eycleshymer 1 found that where 
eggs were unmoved during the incubation period but 15 per 
cent of fertile eggs hatched. A very large proportion of the 
fertile eggs that failed to hatch did so because in the early 
stages the embryo, or in the later stages the allantois, had 
adhered to the shell. It is assumed that this could have been 
largely overcome by turning. 

Eggs from the same hens that were turned at 6 a.m. and 
6 p.m. gave a hatch of 58 per cent of fertile eggs. In this 
same connection, Jackson 2 kept a record of 1350 eggs, half 
of which were turned twice daily during the incubation 
period, while the remainder were unturned. These eggs 
were distributed in equal lots through several different 
incubators. Although the group of eggs that were turned 
twice daily contained six more infertile eggs than the other 
group, 66 per cent of all eggs set that were turned twice 
hatched, while but 59.8 per cent of the unturned eggs gave 
living chicks. 

Payne 3 found that eggs turned four to six times daily 
during incubation in March and April hatched from 4 to 22 
per cent better than eggs turned twice daily, with an average 
of about 10 per cent. Eggs handled in the same manner in 
May and June showed no advantage in the extra turnings. 
He also found that the per cent of deformed chicks was 
reduced during March and April by the extra turning, but 
not in May and June. 

In practice the eggs should be turned as frequently as 
possible. In most cases this will be three times daily — 
morning, noon, and night. 

Date of Hatching. — The proper date for hatching chicks 
depends upon local climatic conditions and the breed being 
hatched. The Mediterranean breeds may be hatched 

1 Biological Bulletin, May, 1907. 2 Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 120. 

3 Paper read before Thirteen Annual Convention of American Associa- 
tion of Instructors and Investigators in Poultry Husbandry, 1920. 



218 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

thirty to forty-five days later than the American and English 
breeds, and still mature early enough to begin laying by fall. 

For the north central states, American pullets that are 
expected to lay the following winter should be out between 
the first of March and the middle of April. Goodale 1 found 
that in Massachusetts, March hatched Rhode Island Red 
pullets gave a mean winter egg production of 42.65 eggs. 
April hatched pullets gave a mean winter production of 35.40, 
while May pullets gave an average winter production of 
22.50 eggs. 

The Mediterraneans should be hatched late in April or 
early in May. Schwartz 2 came to the conclusion as the 
result of a set of observations on White Leghorn pullets, 
that the month of hatch had comparatively little influence 
on the molt. The Asiatics should be hatched as early as 
possible. Judging from the results in production at the 
laying competition conducted by the Connecticut Agri- 
cultural College, Card 8 concluded that for that state late 
April or early May was the proper hatching time lor Leg- 
horns. Pullets hatched during this period usually showed 
an advantage over both March and June hatched pullets. 
Lewis 4 has since reported that in New Jersey, February 
hatched Leghorn pullets eonld be carried through the 
following fall without molting by means of the feeding methods 
made possible by illuminated houses. 

Lewis, in comparing the rate of growth of Leghorn chicks 
hatched April I and June L, found, as shown in Table 
XXXIV, that the April-hatched chicks averaged L.70 pounds 
heavier in November than (he June-hatched chicks, although 
there was an average difference in weight at July 1 of but 
1.17 pounds. The younger chicks were not able to make 
proper gains until the cool weather of the fall came. At 
three and a. half months the late-hatched chicks did not 
weigh as much as the early-hatched ones did at three months. 

1 American Naturalist, vol. Hi, No. (ill. 

'■' .lour. Am. Assn. Insl. and Invest, in I'oul. llnsb., vol. v, No. 10. 

•' Storrs i< !onn.) Bulletin, No. 91. 

1 Now Jersey Experiment. Station Animal Report. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EOOS 



219 



Table XXXIV. — Comparative Gains op Early and Late 
Hatched Chicks; (Data op Lewis.) 







Lot (A). 






Lot (B). 








April hatched. 




Juno 


h.'ll.c'linl 




Date. 


1 

o 


ti 


e weight, 
ds. 


i 

.0 


* 

o 


ti 


J3 
'3 


4 

a 
a 
o 




a 


Jo 


M O 


a 


a 


0) 




ft 

a 




£ 


g 


\% 


"a 




3 


g>8, 


'3 




< 


'A 


< 


O 


< 


fc 


< 


O 


July 11 . . . . 


3 


50 


1.47 




1.0 


50 


:',()() 








50 


1.81 


0.34: 


1.5 


45 


0.402 


0.102 


Auk- 15 ... 


4.5 


48 


2.50 


0.69 


2.5 


44 


0.870 


0.468 


Sept. 15 ... . 


5.5 


48 


3.30 


0.80 


3.5 


44 


1.210 


0.340 


Oct. 15 . 


6.5 


48 


4.05 


0.75 


4.5 


42 


2.100 


0.800 


Nov. 15 ... . 


7.5 


47 


4.70 


0.65 


6.0 


42 


3.000 


0.900 



Mairs 1 also found that early-hatched chicks grew faster 
than late-hatched ones, and suggested April 1 as a suitable 
hatching date for Pennsylvania without making any differ- 
ence for different classes of chickens. 

Where the falls are quite late, judgment must be used in 
selecting the date of hatching. It is entirely possible to hatch 
out pullets so early that they will go through a general molt 
in the fall, precisely as do the hens, and quit laying until 
along toward spring. , 

Distribution of Incubator Mortality. In a very careful 
and interesting study of the time distribution of the mortality 
of embryos, Payne 2 found thai 69.4 per cent of all the 
mortality occurred during seven days, namely; the fourth 
fifth and sixth and the eighteenth to twenty-first inclusive. 
The mortality was L6.2 per cent during the third to fifth 
and IS. 7 per cent during the eighteenth to twenty-first. 
Many of the embryos dying during the latter period were 
deformed. A graphic presentation of the distribution of 
embryo mortality is shown in Figure 101. 



1 Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 87 

1 Jour. Am. Assn. Insl. and [nvest. in I'oiil. Ilusl 



No. 2. 



220 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



In hatches averaging about 50 per cent of total eggs set, 
approximately 40 per cent of the deaths occur during the 
first thirteen days of incubation and about 60 per cent die 
between the fourteenth and twenty-first days inclusive. 



Fig. 101 



20 








































1 


















































18 
























































































16 


















































































| 








14 

0) 


























































































£■2 






































1 




















































O 

£10 

u 






































) 


< 


) 
















































a: 
U8 










































\ 












































\ 




6 












































, 














































4 


























































































2 









































































































































2 4 6 S 10 12 14 16 18 20 « 

Pays. Of IncuBATion 

Graphic presentation of the distribution of incubator mortality. (From 
data of Payne.) 



This gives an approximate basis for calculating on the 
fourteenth day the probable number of chicks which will 
hatch in the event of a normal run by the incubator. 

Routine of Management. — The practical application of the 
principles of incubation will vary under different conditions 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 221 

and in different locations. The routine of management 
suggested hereafter has been found satisfactory in three 
west-central states lying in the heart of the heavy poultry 
producing section. 

Levelling the Machine. — The incubator should be made 
level so that there will be no high, hot corners. This may 
be accomplished by the use of a carpenter's level, taking 
care to see that it is level from front to back as well as from 
side to side. 

Disinfection. — If the incubator has been used before, during 
the same or previous season, the egg chamber and nursery 
should be very thoroughly disinfected, including the trays, 
thermometer, and moisture pans. Disease that has done no 
special harm among chicks of a previous hatch may assume 
the proportions of an epidemic in a subsequent one. A 3 per 
cent solution of any of the standard coal-tar stock dips will 
be found satisfactory for this purpose. It is not necessary 
for the machine to be dried out before putting in the eggs, 
provided the proper temperature has been reached. 

Preparing the Lamp. — The lamp should not be filled above 
a point a half-inch from the top. In a lamp that is too full 
the oil is likely to work out on the outside of the bowl and 
up on the burner, causing fumes, and possibly a deposit of 
soot, and smoking. 

It is an excellent practice to pin two wicks together in 
starting the hatch as a precaution against the oil being 
low and the wick getting short and putting out the lamp 
toward the end of the hatch. 

Care should be taken in the beginning as throughout the 
run to see that the flame is round, as in Figure 102, and has no 
points or corners, as in Figure 103. This may be accom- 
plished in the beginning by cutting off the corners of the wick, 
as shown in Figure 102, and by wiping or scraping off the 
charring thereafter rather than cutting it off with the scissors. 
Corners or points on the side of a flame tend to deposit soot on 
the side of the heater flue. If this continues unnoticed the 
accumulations soon become sufficient to choke the draft 
and cause a bad "smoke up" and even a fire. 

The burner and lamp must be kept absolutely free of oil 



222 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



and clean of accumulations of any kind. The best lamps will 
smoke and be dangerous if choked with charrings. 



Fig. 102 





Showing how to trim a wick to produce a round flame. 
Fig. 103 





Showing a wick trimmed so as to produce a flame with corners which 
will cause the deposit of soot on the side of the direct heat flue, ultimately 
causing a smoking heater. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 223 

Because of the tendency for a flame to "run up," as the 
lamp and heater become warm, it is best to make a practice 
of filling and cleaning the lamp in the morning so that if the 
flame needs further attention it will be noticed during the 
day and be in good working order by night. It is also a good 
plan to do all handling of the eggs before caring for the lamp, 
so that there will be no kerosene on the hands to be brought 
in contact with the eggs. 

Starting the Incubator. — In starting a new incubator, or 
one with which the operator is unfamiliar, a medium to low 
flame should be maintained and a half-inch play given on the 
connecting rod by loosening the thumb-nut. This will 
allow considerable expansion at the thermostat without 
raising the damper disk. A high flame or too much play on 
the connecting rod is likely to allow the temperature to run 
high enough to ruin the thermometer. It is a safe precaution 
to use an ordinary high registering thermometer until the 
proper temperature has been reached, and so avoid this 
difficulty. Care should also be taken at the beginning of each 
season to see that the thermometer is registering accurately. 
It shou'd be carefully compared with a physicians clinical 
thermometer by moving the bulbs of both back and forth in 
water that is 103° to 105° F. in temperature. Because a 
thermometer works perfectly one season is no criterion that 
it will do so the next. 

When the play has been taken up and the damper raised, 
the thumb-nut should be cautiously loosened, the amount 
being governed by the rise in temperature necessary to bring 
it to 101° F. on a level with the top of the eggs. When this 
temperature is reached the flame should be so adjusted that 
the temperature will be maintained with the damper disk 
hanging an eighth of an inch above the heater. This allows 
a reserve of heat for the regulator to make use of in case of 
a drop in the incubator-room temperature. This condition 
should be maintained for at least twenty-four hours before 
putting in the eggs, in order to make sure that everything is in 
good running order. The eggs should then be put in and the 
incubator left closed for two days. 



224 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Temperature.— The temperature should be held at 101° 
to 102° F. during the first week, 102° the second week, 103° 
the third week until the eggs began to pip, when it may be 
allowed to go to 104°. Under no circumstances should it be 
allowed to run above 105° and 104° is a safer upward limit. 

Moisture. — At the same time that the eggs are put in, 
moisture should be supplied. The amount depends upon 
local climatic conditions. In dry sections or during a drouth, 
a shallow pan, the size of the floor of the nursery, filled with 
sand and puddled with water, should be used. Such an 
arrangement is usually referred to as a sand tray. 

Where there is a fair amount of moisture in the air a sand 
tray half as large may be used, and in damp sections, or 
during a wet season, the sand may be left out and only 
water put in. In any case the water should never be warmed 
more than is barely necessary to take off the chill. 

The common means of gauging the amount of moisture to 
be supplied as the period advances is the size of the air cell. 
A more reliable means is weighing the eggs, as suggested 
by Atwood, 1 and comparing the evaporation loss with the 
calculated normal loss for the same number of fertile eggs. 
The ordinary person usually does not judge the relative 
size of the air cell very accurately. It is an excellent plan to 
use a hygrometer or wet-bulb thermometer in connection 
with the weighing. Where their relationship in a given 
locality is once established the weighing may be dispensed 
with and the wet-bulb temperature used as a guide. 

Turning.— After the second day the eggs should be turned 
three to five times daily. Turning may easily be accom- 
plished by shuffling the eggs gently with the hands. It is a 
good practice to remove about two rows of eggs from the 
front of the egg tray, roll all the eggs forward, and place those 
removed in the back. This, in combination with turning 
the tray a quarter of the way around each time it is removed, 
tends to equalize any differences in temperature there may be 
between different sides or corners of the egg chamber. In 

1 West Virginia Bulletin No. 98. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 225 

the case of a two-tray incubator the trays may be turned end 
for end one time and shifted from side to side the next. 

While turning the eggs the incubator door should be closed 
to conserve both the temperature and moisture. All drafts 
or any means of sudden chilling must be avoided. Turning 
should be discontinued after the eighteenth day. 

Ventilating. — Different styles of incubators vary so in 
their styles of ventilation that it is difficult to make any 
general suggestions that will apply in all cases. It is usually 
well to follow the manufacturer's instructions. If, however, 
poor results that cannot be ascribed to any other cause 
are had, means for admitting more air should be devised. 
Few if any incubators are overventilated. 

While the hatch is coming off, ventilation should be 
restricted for the purpose of conserving the moisture left 
in the machine after the removal of the sand trays. As 
soon as the hatch is over the ventilators should be opened 
fully. 

Testing. — It is customary to test the eggs at the end of the 
first week in order that all eggs that are not developing may 
be removed. This is desirable in order to avoid breaking 
eggs having dead germs in turning, and that the developing 
eggs may have the added room. In the case of poor fertility 
the eggs from two or more machines may be combined. 
White-shelled eggs may be tested as early as the third day, 
with very dark-shelled ones the germ often cannot be seen 
until the eighth or ninth day. 

The two classes of eggs tested out are "infertiles" and 
"dead germs." Technically the term "infertile" refers to 
the fact that an egg has never been fertilized, while practically 
it includes those which have started to develop but have died 
before progressing far enough to be distinguished before the 
tester. The dead germ refers to one that is fertile in which 
the germ has died after developing far enough to be seen 
before the tester. 

The so-called infertile egg appears to be clear save for a 
floating shadow, which is easily distinguished as the yolk. 

The live germ is spider-like in appearance, the body of the 
embryo representing the body of the spider and the radiating 
15 



226 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



bloodvessels its legs. The live germ floats about freely in the 
contents of the egg when the egg is rotated before the tester. 

The dead germ may be recognized by the absence of the 
bloodvessels, its adhering to the shell, or by the quite typical 
pink ring surrounding it which is called the blood ring. 

The second test is commonly made at the end of the second 
week. If the first has been accurately done there will be 



Fig. 104 




A lamp tester. There are many styles of testers but all work on the 
principle of shutting off all light from the eye except that which passes 
through the egg, thereby showing whether there is a live embryo or not. 

only dead germs to test out. The live embryo at this time 
appears to nearly fill the egg. In the one or two light spaces 
which are usually present, bloodvessels will be noticed and the 
embryo chick will frequently be seen to move when the egg 
is rotated. 

The dead germs may vary in appearance from typical 
blood rings to embryo chicks of nearly normal size. The 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 



227 



latter will usually be readily recognized by the absence of 
bloodvessels and a general indefiniteness of outline. 



Fig. 105 




A convenient arrangement for sunlight testing. 1, tray for untested 
eggs; 2, tray for fertile eggs; 3 and 4, trays for unfertiles and dead germs; 
5, prepared roofing with egg opening placed over window. (Courtesy of 
Cornell Reading Courses.) 



Fig. 106 




Testing eggs in the sunlight. 



228 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Taking off the Hatch. — As soon as the chicks begin to pip 
the moisture pans should be removed (unless they are so pro- 
tected by a wire screen that the chicks cannot get into them), 
and the aperture through which the chicks drop down into 
the nursery, opened. The incubator should then be closed 
and left closed until the hatch is well over. The temperature 
should be carefully watched at this time, because the heat 
generated by the struggling chicks is often sufficient to 
raise the temperature beyond the limit of the regulator's 
ability to act. It should not be allowed to run above 105° F. 

Fig. 107 





A handy arrangement for hardening the chickens. (Courtesy of 
Prairie State Incubator.) 

After a normal run the hatch will be well over by the end of 
the twentieth day in the case of eggs from Mediterranean 
breeds, and the twenty-first day in the case of the American 
breeds. With the Asiatics it frequently takes eight to 
twelve hours longer. If the temperature runs low the hatch 
will be delayed, and if it runs high it will be hastened. When 
the hatch is well over, the egg trays should be removed and 
the shells and unhatched eggs burned. 



THE INCUBATION OF HENS' EGGS 229 

The chicks should be left in the incubator without feeding 
for at least thirty-six hours after hatching, and as much 
longer as is necessary to compel a lusty demonstration of the 
fact that they are hungry. As soon as they are dried off and 
fluffed out, the temperature on a level with the chicks should 
be reduced to 93° or 95° F. by opening the door enough to 
admit a little fresh air without cooling the machine down 
suddenly. Reducing the temperature and admitting fresh 
air is referred to as "hardening the chicks." During this 
time darken the egg chamber by hanging a dark cloth in front 
of the door. This prevents the chicks from picking at the 
droppings or developing the vice of toe-picking. The reason 
for delaying the removal of the chicks is to secure as complete 
yolk absorption as possible. The yolk that remains unused 
just prior to hatching is taken into the chick's body through 
the navel, and acts as a food supply for a number of hours. 
This fact is at the bottom of the successful shipping of newly 
hatched chicks. Giving a new supply of food before the old 
supply is exhausted seems to lead to digestive complications. 

As soon after the thirty-six-hour period as the chicks give 
evidence of real hunger they may be removed to the brooder. 
For this purpose a flannel-lined, hooded basket should be 
used, which will fully protect them from the cold. A cold 
wind striking them at this time is likely to prove disastrous. 
If possible the transfer should be made at dusk so that the 
chicks will have no tendency to wander from the warm com- 
partment of the brooder until they have it permanently 
located. 

Insurance Restrictions. — A matter of practical importance 
that should not be overlooked is that of fire-insurance re- 
strictions relative to the operating of incubators in dwell- 
ings. One's policy should be carefully scrutinized in this 
regard. Some policies have no restrictions. Others have 
specifications to which the incubator must conform, while 
still others become void if an incubator of any type is oper- 
ated without special permission. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE BROODING OF CHICKS. 

Natural Brooding. — The essentials of natural brooding are 
comparatively few. They consist of a quiet, motherly, broody 







Fig. 108 












•*.^B 




















B^V.j 


^\< 
















MBkjt ^irfdB 


« 


•3 



Hen and chicks. (Courtesy of Vilmer, Crown Point, Indiana.) 

hen or capon, some sort of coop that will protect the mother 
and chicks from the weather and from enemies, and a fair- 
sized, grassy, shady range. 
(230) 



232 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Those hens which are best for setting will usually be found 
to make the best mothers. The coop may be of almost any 
size and shape. The " A" shaped coops with a small protected 
run shown in Figure 109 will be found convenient, serviceable, 
and inexpensive. 

Capons are sometimes used as mothers, but are more of 
a curiosity than a success. In inducing them to take 
the chicks, confine them in a roomy nest box with a 
low roof and place the chicks under them at dusk. If on 
examination in the morning it is found that the capon 
has not accepted the chicks, they should be taken away 
and kept warm throughout the day and placed under 

Fig. 112 




Capon brooding chicks. (Courtesy of George Beuoy.) 

the capon again at dusk, he having been confined to the 
nest throughout the day. He will frequently accept the 
chicks the first night and rarely refuses them on the second. 
Some breeders who use capons extensively for brooding, 
wait until the chicks are two weeks old before trusting them 
to the capons. 

Natural versus Artificial Brooding. — Artificial brooding is a 
more or less necessary accompaniment of the use of incu- 
bators. Its advantages and disadvantages are quite com- 
parable with those of artificial incubation. The natural 
method is the proper one where only a few chicks are raised. 
With any numbers, however, the use of brooders is to be 



THE BROODING OF CHICKS 233 

advised. It concentrates the many small flocks into a few 
larger ones, thereby reducing the care. The great advantage 
of artificial brooding is the possibility of raising chicks past 
weaning, absolutely louse-free. 

Principles of Artificial Brooding. — The principles of brooding 
are essentially those of housing, with the addition of a tem- 
perature requirement. A complete brooder is simply a 
special form of house designed for the purpose of keeping 
chicks comfortable. The most recent developments in com- 
mercial brooders are the portable hover and the large colony 
brooder. The portable hover is a small compartment con- 
taining its own heater, in which the temperature may be 

Fig. Ill 





A portable hover. (Courtesy of Prairie State Incubator Company.) 

controlled and which may be placed in any ordinary poultry 
house, thereby rendering it habitable for chicks. The large 
colony brooder is usually heated by a stove burning either 
coal or oil. 

The conditions necessary for successful brooding are (1) 
a compartment in which the temperature is under control 
and which has (2) a constant supply of fresh air and is (3) 
dark; (4) dryness; (5) adequate space; (6) the admission of 
sunlight; (7) ease of disinfection; (8) protection against chick 
enemies; (9) safety from fire. 

Temperature. — There is no general agreement among 
poultrymen as to what constitutes exactly the proper hover 



234 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 
Fig. 112 






Showing method of conducting fumes out-of-doors from a portable hover, 
(Courtesy of Cyphers Incubator Company.) 



Fig. 113 




Large colony brooder, oil heated. (Courtesy of H. F. Arenberg, 
Petaluma, Cal.) 



THE BROODING OF CHICKS 



235 



temperature for chicks just out of the incubator or at suc- 
ceeding ages. There is no cumulative experimental evidence 
determining definitely what these temperatures should be. 
General experience, however, agrees with the results of a 



Fig. 114 




Large colony brooder, coal heated. Capacity 500 chicks. (Courtesy of 
Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

single experiment reported by Lewis 1 , in which he brooded 
four groups of fifty chicks each in brooders where all con- 
ditions were exactly alike, except that of temperature. 

1 Thirty-second Annual Report, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment 
Station. 



236 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



The first brooder was kept very warm, having an average 
hover temperature of 112° for the first twenty-eight days. 
The mortality was 42 per cent. The second brooder was 
cooler, having an average temperature of 104°, but the 



Fig. 115 




Large colony brooder with hover raised. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



variations in temperature were extreme, varying from 86° 
to 120°. In this brooder the percentage of mortality was 
68. The third brooder was started at 100° and gradually 
reduced to a temperature of 85° at the end of twenty-eight 



THE BROODING OF CHICKS 



237 



days, the average temperature being 94°. The mortality 
was 10 per cent. The fourth brooder had an initial hover 
temperature of 90°, which was gradually reduced to 74° 
at the end of the period. The average temperature was 85° 
and the mortality was 24 per cent. 



Fig. 116 




O/ais 
6'jtxr 













■'■._ tiirc An* 



'//■:• 



>;&, 



^t 



<D Chk-k Door 



><m 



-z-<- 



■'/AW 



Front view 

Plan of colony brooder house. (Courtesy of Missouri Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



As the result of this experiment, Lewis suggests 100° as a 
suitable temperature for the first week, 96° for the second, 
92° for the third, and 88° for the fourth, where the chicks 
are Leghorns. 

It is unsafe to lay down absolute rules for all breeds and 
conditions. First and always the chicks must be comfortable. 
In quite cold weather it is likely to take a higher temperature 
to accomplish this than in more moderate weather. Less heat 



238 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



is required for snappy, vigorous stock than for birds of less 
vitality. The temperature should in all cases be reduced as 
rapidly, as the chicks grow older, as is compatible with their 
comfort, and artificial heat taken away altogether as soon 
as they are well feathered out. 



Fig. 117 




Cross section 

Plan of colony brooder house. (Courtesy of Missouri Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



While it is exceedingly desirable to get the chicks on a 
self-sustaining basis with regard to the maintenance of body 
temperature, it is always best to err on the side of too much 
heat than too little. This is particularly true in cold weather, 
when a high hover temperature is necessary to warm chicks 
up quickly when they get cold. It does not hurt chicks to 



THE BROODING OF CHICKS 



239 



run out in quite cold weather, provided they can get warm 
quickly whenever they desire. Even after all artificial heat 



Fig. 118 



w 



fit 




7-6"- 



Floor plan 

Plan of colony brooder house. (Courtesy of Missouri Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



has been done away with, and the chicks well feathered, the 
brooding apparatus should be held in readiness against 



240 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



unusually cool nights, which are likely to produce crowding 
if a little extra heat is not supplied. 

The thermometers used should be carefully tested at the 
beginning of each season, if they are to be relied upon, just 
as in the case of incubators. 



Fig. 119 




Continuous hot water pipe brooder. Hover in foreground raised. (Courtesy 
of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Effect of Chilling. — A little chick compelled to remain in 
the cold after he begins to feel chilly, soon becomes helpless, 
This is apparently caused by the paralysis of the breathing- 
apparatus. The lungs are located on either side of the 
median line of the back at the circumference of the body 
cavity. Lobes of the lungs extend between the ribs and are 
protected from the outside temperature only by a thin 
membrane, the skin, and a coat of down. It is not surprising 
that when the chick is chilled the lungs are quickly affected, 
breathing power restricted, and a general enfeeblement of the 
powers of movement ensues. 

In natural brooding, the back and lungs are the best 
protected portions of the body. When a chick becomes 



THE BROODING OF CHICKS 



241 



uncomfortably cold under conditions of artificial brooding, 
and is unable to locate heat enough to warm him quickly, 
he obeys that instinct which tells him to get his back up 
against the mother hen. The result is that he tries to crawl 
under the other chicks. This, taken up by the other chicks 
in turn, results in bunching and crowding with the accom- 
panying evils of smothered chicks and a diminution of thrift 
on the part of the entire flock. 

Where the temperature is not sufficiently low to actually 
chill the chicks, but fails to make them comfortable, they 
quickly show the effect by ruffled feathers, "winginess," and 

Fig. 120 




Showing the result of chilling. (Courtesy of Purdue Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



a general appearance of unthrift, which is frequently accom- 
panied by digestive disorders quite similar to contagious 
diarrhea in symptoms and results. 

Fresh Air.— Not only should there be a well- ventilated 
exercising pen and outdoor run, but the brooder-hover must 
be so arranged that there will be a constantly changing supply 
of the air. In the small oil-heated portable hovers of the 
best type, the heater is so constructed that it both radiates 
heat from a drum and heats air which is poured under the 
hover, displacing and forcing out the old air. With the coal- 
16 



242 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

stove brooders in which the hover acts largely as a deflector, 
there is usually a good circulation of air. With those having 
a long fringe or curtain, the latter should not be allowed to 
reach the floor by at least three inches if the air underneath 
is to be kept sweet. 

Darkness. — "For the very best results the hover should 
be at least partially darkened. The reason for this is evident. 
Not only does the chick normally seem to enjoy seclusion, 
but when anything occurs to frighten him the first thing he 
wants to do is to get out of sight. In natural brooding he 

Fig. 121 




An orchard is a great place for the chicks. (Courtesy of Purdue Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 

ducks under the mother hen. As soon as he get out of sight 
or where he cannot see the thing that frightened him, he feels 
safe. This is a case where it pays in dollars and cents to 
humor the chicks." 1 Fright interferes w r ith proper growth 
and comfort aids it. 

Dryness.— Chicks cannot thrive in damp quarters. While 
heat is supplied the floor of the hover is likely to be dry. 
This should be true of the whole room or pen in which the 
brooder is located. Dampness makes filth out of litter and 

1 Card and Kirkpatrick: Storrs (Conn.) Bulletin, No. 96. 



THE BROODING OF CHICKS 243 

droppings, which harbors disease. Thrifty chicks may be 
expected only when their quarters are dry and clean. 

Sunlight. -Sunlight and cheerfulness are synonymous in 
the brooder house. Sunlight is a powerful disinfectant and 
aids in keeping the quarters dry. It adds materially to the 
health and comfort of the chicks and aids in securing a profit- 
able growth. 

Number of Chicks to a Hover.— Commercial brooders are 
usually overrated as to their capacity. While many of the 
small hovers on the market rated at 100 chicks are capable 
of brooding 100 chicks at the beginning, it is only when the 
entire hover space is left free for the occupancy of the 
chicks. In some hovers nearly half the floor space under 
the hover is occupied by the heater. No hover, however, 
which is not over 2\ feet in diameter is capable of properly 
rearing to weaning more than 50 chicks. 

While large coal stove hovers are capable of keeping 1500 
to 2000 chicks warm, the advice of Card and Kirkpatrick, 1 
that not more than 500 chicks be started in one lot is based 
on sound practice. They advise 1 square foot of floor space 
for each 4 chicks. On this basis a house or pen 10 by 12 
feet is needed for each coal brooder. 

Ease of Disinfection.— The mutual arrangements of the 
brooder and the room in which it is housed must be such that 
every crack and crevice may be easily reached and thoroughly 
soaked by disinfectant from a spray pump. 

Safety from Fire.— While the brooder of today is much 
safer from fire than its forerunners, this point should be 
carefully considered in making a purchase and kept con- 
stantly in mind after the purchase. There is always a con- 
siderable fire hazard where colony brooders are being 
operated. 

Place of Operation.— Brooders should be located only in 
buildings which meet the requirements of a good poultry 
house. These requirements, already covered in part, are 
fully discussed in Chapter VI. They are (1) dryness, (2) 
good ventilation without drafts, (3) plenty of sunlight, (4) 

1 Storrs (Conn.) Bulletin, No. 96. 



244 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

ease of cleaning and disinfection, (5) plenty of scratching 
room for the chicks, and (6) protection against their enemies. 
To this should be added that abundant shade is a necessity 
as soon as the chicks are out of doors. 

Preparing for the Chicks. — A brooder which has ever, at 
any time, been used, should be carefully cleaned and thor- 
oughly disinfected in every part, including the thermometer, 
drinking fountains, and feed troughs, before attempting to 
brood a new group of chicks. The house in which it is 
located (in the case of an indoor brooder) should receive 
the same treatment. 

It should then be leveled and the heater started. A new 
machine, or one with which the operator is not familiar, 
should be required to hold a fairly uniform temperature 
of 100° for at least two days before trusting chicks to it. 

The floor beneath and surrounding the hover should be 
covered with a fine litter of some such digestible material as 
fine-cut alfalfa or clover. Where indigestible material is 
used, such as chaff, cut straw, sand, and the like, there is 
always danger of the chicks filling themselves on this mate- 
rial, thereby causing impaction and a resulting high death 
rate. This may be replaced by a less expensive litter after 
the chicks are three or four days old. 

Some such arrangement as is shown in Figures 122 or 123 
should be made, which will prevent the chicks from wander- 
ing too far from the hover at first. They are particularly 
prone to being attracted by "sun spots" (i. e., the bright 
places where the sun strikes the floor), and, feeling the 
warmth of the sun, to camp there. When the spot moves on 
or disappears, the chicks will remain and become chilled. 

As soon as they all learn to go under the hover at night 
without assistance, the arrangement may be removed. 

The drinking fountain should always be located some little 
distance from the hover so that any water that is spilled will 
not render it necessary for the chicks to sleep in damp 
quarters. A device for avoiding a spill is shown in Figure 
124. 

Daily Management. — Brooding routine consists in regular 
and scrupulous care of the lamp, frequent and thorough 



THE BROODING OF CHICKS 
Fig. 122 



245 




Showing square chick guard with corners protected. (Courtesy of Cyphers 
Incubator Company.) 

Fig. 123 





Half-inch mesh hardware cloth circular chick guard, an excellent arrange- 
ment for confining the newly hatched chicks for the first few days. The 
circle may be enlarged as the chicks get older. A very good substitute is a 
light wood frame covered with burlap or light cotton cloth. (Courtesy of 
Prairie State Incubator Company.) 



246 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

cleaning and disinfecting of the hover and its surroundings, 
and a constant watch over the comfort of the chicks. 

The lamp should be filled, cleaned, and the wick trimmed 
every day with the same scrupulous care as with an incu- 
bator. The fact that the lamp bowl contains enough oil 
to last forty-eight hours should be made use of only on such 
terrifically windy days that there is danger of being unable 
to relight the lamp if it is put out. The time of filling and 
cleaning should be that which proves, in the case of the 
particular brooder being operated, to give the steadiest 
and most dependable flame throughout the night. 

Fig. 124 




Device for catching spill. (Courtesy of Cyphers Incubator Company.) 

The first four weeks of a chick's life is the most critical 
period. Usually when chicks are safely past this time, one 
may be reasonably sure of rearing them. During this time, 
however, they are highly susceptible to numerous chick 
diseases and should be guarded against them in every way 
possible. This means that the hover should be kept clean, 
the litter frequently changed, and in case of the appearance 
of disease, or of death under or about the hover for any cause 
except injury, the brooder and its immediate surroundings 
should be painstakingly disinfected. A whisk broom will 
be found a convenience in spraying a small brooder. 

Where several groups of chicks are being brooded, it pays 
to have a cleaned and disinfected hover in reserve, which may 
be used to replace one that needs special attention. 



THE BROODING OF CHICKS 



247 



The necessity for constant watching during the early 
weeks is fortunately made possible by the frequent feeding, 
which is an essential of good feeding practice for little chicks. 

It is considered good practice to get the chicks out onto the 
ground just as soon as possible. This may be done as soon 
as they have the hover sufficiently well located so that they 
may be allowed some distance away from it with reasonable 
assurance that they will come back to it when they feel cool. 
It will be sooner with some bunches than with others. 



Fig. 125 




A muslin windbreak for little chicks. (Courtesy of Kansas Ap 
Experiment Station.) 



cultur 



This should be done even with early chicks in quite cool 
weather. If it is inclined to be a bit brisk, the chicks may 
be protected by a cloth-frame enclosure, as in Figure 125. An 
easy approach to the house or brooder should always be 
provided. If it is at all steep it should be fitted with cleats 
or have poultry netting tacked down for the chicks to hold 
to with their toes. 

Chicks should always be grouped by hatches when put in 
the brooders. It is a great mistake to put a newly hatched 
bunch in with a group a week or more old. Later on, the few 
outstanding individuals which make a thriftier growth than 



248 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

the rest, should be moved to an older group, after having been 
marked as possible breeders. The stragglers, however, 
should not be moved to younger groups, but disposed of as 
unfit to survive. The skilled breeder begins his work of 
selection in the brooder. 

For best results the sexes should be separated as soon as 
they are certainly distinguishable. It is the only method 
by which normal growth and satisfactory development of 
the pullets can be secured. 

Early roosting should always be encouraged. Perches 
should be placed near the hover when the chicks are four or 
five weeks old. A few will start to roost before the heat is 
discontinued in the hover. " Early roosting helps materially 
in carrying the chicks over the critical period between arti- 
ficial heat and full feather, when they are most likely to crowd 
at night and become heated or smothered." 1 

Brooder Vices.— The most common brooder vices, aside 
from crowding, are " toe-picking," and the development of a 
"depraved appetite." 

Toe-picking with the youngsters appears to develop for 
much the same reasons as feather-pulling with old stock. 
It is likely to develop when the quarters are crowded or 
when there is insufficient animal feed in the ration. The 
constant picking at the toes finally causes blood to flow,. 
This, proving palatable, leads to cannibalism, which is 
difficult to check, and which may cause quite serious loss. 

When toe-picking is discovered, roomier quarters or more 
animal feed or both should be provided. The chicks with 
bleeding toes should be removed and kept separate until 
they are well healed. 

The depraved appetite is frequently difficult to assign 
a cause or cure for. It may consist in eating the felt fringe 
curtains of the hover, filling up on sand or earth, or other 
unnutritious materials. The cause usually ascribed is the 
lack of some necessary ingredient in the ration. 

Unless impaction occurs the vice usually does the chick 
little harm. If the object of their interest is the hover 
curtain, it may be necessary to substitute oilcloth for the 
felt or flannel. 

1 Card and Kirkpatrick, Storrs (Conn.) Bulletin, No. 96. 



CHAPTER VI. 
HOUSING AND HYGIENE. 

Housing is Unnatural. — When the hen is confined in a 
building she is placed under a highly artificial condition. 
In her wild state she does not ordinarily seek protection or 
seclusion in caves or burrows as do certain other birds. The 
ancestors of the domestic white-egged varieties were jungle 
dwellers, and sought safety and rest on the high limb of a 
tree or the seclusion of the underbrush. While the ancestors 
of at least a part of the feather-footed varieties probably 
had somewhat different habits, nevertheless, they never 
left the open. 

Housing is Necessary.— The housing of poultry is necessary, 
however, for, as Brown 1 points out, there has been a " general 
enfeeblement (of the races of poultry), which is the penalty 
we have to pay for breeding under unnatural conditions, for 
inbreeding to fix defined characters, and for using as stock 
birds those specimens which, in respect to vigor of body, are 
the least fit, even though they show the racial type to the 
highest degree." Artificial protection is necessary to offset 
this general enfeeblement. 

It is also necessary in order that as much as possible of 
the energy derived from feed may be used for productive 
purposes, rather than in withstanding heat or cold winds and 
dampness. The tree-roosting hen is usually vigorous, but 
she is not a great producer except in very favorable weather. 

Comfort the Prime Essential. — Other things being equal, 
production of meat or eggs is in direct proportion to the 
comfort of the hens. So far as the hens are concerned, 
egg production is essentially reproduction. The balance of 
the process of bringing a new creature into the world may 
be accomplished without the aid of the hen. The conditions 

1 Races of Domestic Poultry. 

(249) 



250 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 
Fig. 126 




A simple and serviceable house may be made from piano boxes. ( Courtesy 
of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Fig. 127 




The piano-box house complete. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 251 

which lead to rapid reproduction are those which tend toward 
comfort. The natural laying and breeding season is in the 
spring, because conditions are those which furnish comfort. 
The successful hen-house will furnish its occupants with 
permanent protection from dampness, drafts, w 7 ind, filth, 
vermin, or other causes of discomfort and disease, and 
from their larger enemies. At the same time it will give 
free access to the sunlight and fresh air. It furnishes all the 
protective advantages of the tree limb or hedge row without 
furnishing their discomforts or adding others, and insofar 
as possible duplicates spring conditions the year round. 

Location. — Comfort in the poultry-house is as much a 
matter of location as it is of construction, and the location of 
the building has very much to do with its success. In a 
general way the house fixes the center of the circle which 
marks the limits of the birds' range. This is increasingly 
true under modern methods of feeding, where each flock of 
fowls is always fed in or near its own house, whether it 
be fed by hopper or out of hand. 

The house marks the spot where they spend much of their 
time in the winter, which is the season that most taxes the 
producer's skill. The well-located house will be so situated 
that its occupants spend a maximum of time out of doors. 
This is desirable because it adds to the fowl's health and 
lessens the relative cost of the house. The greater the 
proportion of time that the fowls remain outside, the larger 
is the number of fowls the house will accommodate. 

Shade and Shelter. — Extremes of temperature lessen pro- 
duction, and should be modified insofar as it is practicable. 
Although the ancestors of many of our common varieties of 
chickens are believed to have come from a warm country, 
the domestic fowl does not seem to be very well equipped 
to withstand high temperatures. There are no sweat glands, 
as in the horse, to aid in keeping the body cool. The molt 
comes as a preparation for winter rather than for the purpose 
of keeping the hen cool, as does the shedding of other animals. 
About the only means for reducing her body temperature 
when it is too high that has been furnished the hen is panting, 
and panting steals productive energy. 



252 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



The jungle-dwelling fowl of the hot country is kept cool 
by the shade of the thicket, and the domestic hen should be 
protected in the same way. In addition to trees, there 



Fig. 128 




Growing chickens need shade. (Courtesy of Purdue Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



Fig. 129 




A chicken house near a corn field is good for the corn and good for the 
chickens. (Courtesy of Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 253 

should be some low shrubbery under which the hens love 
to hide and which serves as a protection from hawks and 
crows in the case of young stock, as well. 

The same trees that furnish shade will keep out the wind. 
It is not enough to locate the poultry-house in the lee of 
some larger farm building. Such shelter is valuable if it is 
the best to be had, but the large building will not always be 
to windward, and hot winds are often quite as blighting as 
cold ones. 

Fig. 130 



■■i^H 




■ 


UM 


H 


■ 


-• - 


W£M 


„... 


— 


~;^y 




~^B 






. -r ... 


-*5 &c .- w n^ 


5<s=e- r---— ' 


'Z'L^'^-mmt 


*fe**s* 


JMSB******* 1 ^! 


fc-Sz •-- " 




■■-'' -' r ' 



When it is necessary to build where there are no trees, shade must be 
provided for the stock. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment 
Station.) 

Sudden changes in temperature always lessen egg pro- 
duction and generally lessen hatching power. The house 
that is completely surrounded by trees will not be subject 
to such sudden and severe changes as the house that is in 
the full sweep of the wind. These trees may at the same 
time comprise the farm orchard or be the means of supply- 
ing fence posts. A hillside may be of great assistance in 
protecting a house from prevailing winds, but it should be 
supplemented by trees. 

Soil and Drainage. — The ideal soil for the location of the 
hen-house is one that is open enough to allow water to drain 
out and warm air to get in quickly, and at the same time is 
fertile enough to support a vigorous vegetable growth. The 
sandy or gravelly loam furnishes these conditions. The 
clay and gumbo soils are usually undesirable, because 



254 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

moisture passes through them with difficulty. Where there 
is moisture there is evaporation. Evaporation is a cooling 
process, and damp soils are always cold. Cold and dampness 
are limiting factors in egg production. 

Such a soil, unless thoroughly drained by tiling, is a 
source of positive danger to the health of the flock. Moisture 
furnishes one of the essentials of the survival and development 
of disease-producing bacteria. A damp soil harbors disease. 
When the movement of the soil water is slow, unless the 
ground surrounding the house is so steep that it is self- 
cleaning every time it rains, it becomes coated with filth 
and contaminated with accumulations of droppings. Muddy 
yards are unsatisfactory to feed on, and soon make the feeding 
floor of the houses dirty. Unlike ducks, chickens are highly 
sensitive to filth in their feed. 

Aside from its hygienic aspects, the fact must not be lost 
sight of that muddy yards mean that mud will be carried 
into the pens and nests and dirty eggs will result. Dirty 
eggs bring less on any market where quality is considered. 

Exposure.— There are periods when despite the efforts of 
the poultryman the birds are driven indoors. These periods 
are shortened when the house is placed on a south slope, 
well sheltered, that offers good air and water drainage. 
The south slope is advantageous for poultry for the opposite 
reason that a north slope is sought for fruits. The early 
arrival of spring conditions is as desirable for poultry, as 
the retarding of those conditions until all danger of frost 
has passed is for fruit. The soil on a south slope will be 
several degrees warmer than the same type of soil on any 
other slope or on the level. Because it is warmer it is dryer. 
The snow melts more quickly, and there is less discomfort for 
the birds. Spring conditions arrive earlier and tarry later 
on a south slope than on any other exposure, and spring is 
the season of the greatest and most economical production. 
Next to the southern exposure the east is the most desirable, 
because if they cannot have both, chickens, in common with 
flowers, prefer the morning to the afternoon sun. The west 
slope is the next most desirable, and the north exposure is 
the least desirable of all. 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 



255 



Air Drainage. — Poultry houses are sometimes placed on 
low ground because of the shelter afforded by the higher 
ground, or for reasons of convenience. Cold, damp air 
settles in low places and frosts appear there earlier in the 
fall and later in the spring than on the surrounding higher 
ground. If there is no lower ground beyond, on to which the 
cold air may drain, such a situation is bad. Because damp, 
chilly air is uncomfortable it is not conducive to good pro- 
duction. The shelter of high ground is desirable only when 
there is enough ground lower than that upon which the 
house is situated, so that the cool air that settles about the 
house may quickly drain away. 



Fig. 131 




A comfortable house with a board, glass, and muslin front, covered with 
straw. (Courtesy of Reliable Poultry Journal.) 

The Hen-house and other Buildings. — In locating a per- 
manent poultry-house the fact that it must fit into the 
general routine of farm work and bear certain relations to 
other farm buildings must not be lost sight of. It is highly 
undesirable to build very near granaries, cribs, or barns, 
where the poultry is a nuisance, and which harbor rats and 
other vermin that prey on poultry and destroy eggs. The 
hen-house that is properly cared for may be located consider- 
ably nearer the dwelling than the stables for other stock. 
This is often a convenience for several reasons, among which 
is the fact that it is likely to be near the water supply. 

It sometimes happens that the physical characteristics 



256 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

of a location near the dwelling-house are bad. The soil may 
be of a poor texture or the orchard and woodlot at some 
distance. In general, however, if the building site for the 
dwelling has been well chosen it will furnish good conditions 
for the hen-house. 

Dryness.- Of those conditions which help to make a hen- 
house comfortable, dryness is of the utmost importance. It 
is a condition dependent upon proper location, good construc- 
tion, thorough ventilation, and an abundance of sunshine 1 . 
There is no condition under which poultry is kept, unless 
it is a state of starvation, that is more surely and quickly 
fatal to profitable production than dampness in the roosting 
and scratching quarters. It makes the birds uncomfortable 
and renders them susceptible to disease. 

The chicken is of necessity a rapid breather. Its tempera- 
ture is high (average 106° F.) and the oxidation within the 
body is enormously rapid. Fowls live at a high rate of speed, 
and, as with a highly geared machine, clogging spells disaster. 

Damp air compels fowls to increase their already rapid 
respiration. It is not uncommon to see chickens confined in 
a damp house panting on a day that is rather cold. This 
extra work of faster breathing uses up energy that should be 
employed in the production processes. 

A reason for the increased rapid breathing lies in the 
fact that with the fowl a much larger proportion of the body 
moisture is eliminated by way of the respiratory system 
than in the case of other farm animals. While fowls do not 
drink as much water in proportion to their weight as do 
other animals, there is no elimination by means of sweat 
glands, and the amount of moisture in the feces is com- 
paratively small. There is no urine passed. In the light 
of the fowl's high temperature, as well as the foregoing, it 
seems reasonable to assume that a larger percentage of the 
water drank by fowls is gotten rid of by means of the breath- 
ing apparatus than is the case with other farm animals. 

The elaborateness of the apparatus itself would also suggest 
this probability. Besides a well-developed pair of lungs, 
there are connected with them four pairs of air sacs of 
considerable proportions placed on either side of the body, 



HOUSING l.\ D //) GIEh E 257 

and ranging ill position from i lu x nock to tlio abdomen, with a 
single median sac located in the cavity of the thorax. 
Besides opening into the lungs, these sacs communicate 
directly with the cavities of most of the bones of the body, 
with the exception of those of the forearm and hand of the 
wing and those below the hock-joint of the leg. 




A farm poultry-house: no Light, no ventilation. (Courtesy of Purdue 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



This elaborate system for gathering moisture from every 
part of the body trunk is working at a distinct disadvantage 
when the air which must be depended upon to take up the 
moisture vapor is already laden with it. 

Such a condition is debilitating to the system as well as 
fatal to production. It is a law of universal application that 
a debilitated condition always means weakened defensive 
powers and a greater susceptibility to disease. 

Moisture is one of the essentials of the development of 
disease germs in common with all other bacteria. The 
17 



258 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



more moisture there is in a building the more opportunity 
there is for disease-bearing organisms to be present in large 
numbers. 

With the moisture of the body being constantly given off 
by means of respiration and feces the air of the poultry-house 
is bound to become laden unless it is as constantly replaced 
with new air. 

Fig. 133 




A farm poultry-house having 



ventilation. (Courtesy of Purdue 



Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Ventilation. — Ventilation is of profound importance, how- 
ever, not only because of the relation to the elimination of 
moisture. With the moisture of the expired air, gases are 
also given off, the principal one of which is carbon dioxide. 
Among these gases are certain ones that are actually poison- 
ous if rebreathed. They are far more poisonous when 
breathed by another individual than when breathed by the 
individual giving them off. There is no reason to suppose 
that the striking result reported by King, 1 where a mouse 
confined in a pint fruit-jar until it was nearly suffocated 
lived longer than a perfectly fresh mouse did that was put 
into the jar at that point, is not holding true in the hen-house 
continually. Every bird in the flock of fifty or a hundred is 
compelled to breathe the poisons given off by all the other 



1 Physics of Agriculture. 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 



259 



individuals in the flock unless there is constant and positive 
displacement of the expired air by fresh air. 



Fig. 134 




A poor poultry house; no ventilation. 
Fig. 135 




Making a good poultry house out of a poor one (Figure 134) by providing 
ventilation by means of a cloth-curtain window and a straw loft. 

The need of ventilation is further emphasized by King, 1 
who quotes Calin as giving the cubic feet of air breathed by 
certain animals per thousand pounds of live weight as follows: 



Cow 

Horse 

Hen 



2804 
3401 

8278 



1 Physics of Agriculture. 



260 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Pearl and Surface 1 have to say, in reference to certain 
breeding experiments: " Conditions of housing have a marked 
and definite influence on the mean or average fertility and 
hatching quality of eggs." In the experiments discussed 
it was found that both fertility and the hatching quality 
of eggs were very much better when the breeding was done 
in a curtain-front house, which furnished an abundance of 
fresh, pure air, than when it was done in what was formerly 
considered to be a highly desirable type of heated house with- 
out curtain front, but with a supposedly adequate system of 
indirect ventilation. 

Ventilation and Drafts. — It is difficult to so house fowls that 
they will have as full advantage of fresh air as they have in 
the tree and at the same time be protected from drafts. 
While a fowl can roost all night in a tree when it is blowing 
a gale and not take cold or suffer any other noticeable ill 
effects, it will take cold very quickly if compelled to be in a 
draft inside of a house. Colds frequently form the beginning 
of epidemics of roup, diphtheria, catarrh and other kindred 
ills. While ventilation should be ample it must be without 
drafts. 

Artificial Warmth versus Fresh Air. — A moderate tempera- 
ture is one of the conditions of spring which is conducive 
to high production. The question arises whether it will be 
profitable in the broad sense to furnish artificial heat even 
at the expense of ventilation. There is not nearly as much 
evidence on this point as there should be, but such as we 
have seems to point decidedly to the conclusion that to have 
air fresh is of far greater importance than to have it warm. 

Sunlight. — An essential of the best success of a chicken- 
house is plenty of sunshine. Nothing helps more in the 
effort to reproduce spring conditions in the hen-house than 
flooding it with sunshine. The hens like it, and it helps to 
moderate low temperature and to keep the house dry. 
It helps to prevent disease as well. It is one of the most 
effective germicides that can be made use of. Other things 
being equal the house that admits the most sunshine in the 

1 Maine Bulletin No. 168. 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 



2G1 



winter time will be the one out of which comes the greatest 
production. As Dryden dryly remarks, " Sunshine is a germ 
destroyer and a better egg producer than red pepper or other 
condimental foods." 

Fig. 13G 




A "lean-to" that was converted into a most satisfactory poultry-house. 
Poles were placed inside to form a ceiling and the loft thus made was filled 
with straw to add to the warmth of the house. (Courtesy of Reliable Poul- 
try Journal.) 

Fig. 137 




A shed with the end toward the south that was converted into a satis- 
factory poultry-house by cutting a large opening. (Courtesy of Reliable 
Poultry Journal.) 



Artificial Light.— A comparatively recent development in 
poultry husbandry is the use of artificial lighting in the 
chicken house to prolong the feeding day. The lighting 



262 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



problem is proving to be largely a feeding problem and will 
be discussed in that connection in a later chapter. 

For the present purpose it may be said that proper lighting 
accompanied by proper feeding markedly increases the winter 
egg production of pullets, and under certain circumstances, 
probably of yearling hens. 

While rather early to pass final judgment, it now appears 
probable that where electric current is available and eggs are 
produced as a source of money income rather than to supply 
the home table, lights should form a part of the equipment of 
the poultry house. 

Fig. 138 

















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Wecks rRon Hov 1.1913 



Showing graphically the relation between the per cent (of perfect) egg 
production, temperature and hours of sunlight. (Temperature and egg 
production per cents from the data of Card, Storrs (Conn.) Bulletin, No. 91.) 



Rice 1 advises the use of lights which allow one watt to 
G to 8 square feet of floor space, assuming the walls are white 
and reflectors are used. Lewis 2 has shown that two com- 
paratively small lights are preferable to a single large one 

1 Cornell Poultry Department, Stencil No. 1661. 

2 Paper read before Thirteenth Annual Convention of American Associa- 
tion of Instructors and Investigators of Poultry Husbandry. 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 263 

because shadows are thus largely avoided if wide angle 
reflectors are used. The lights must be bright enough to 
show fine grains in the straw. Lanterns and gasoline lamps 
have so far not proved highly satisfactory. 

Ease of Disinfection. — Because of the small size and 
corresponding small economic value of the individual hen, 
not much time can be spent in doctoring her if she becomes 
sick, even if the knowledge of how to treat her is at one's 
disposal. Yet many poultry diseases are highly contagious. 
If they once gain entrance to the flock, nearly every bird is 
likely to be affected. The only satisfactory way to deal with 
such epidemics is by taking every precaution for prevention. 

An essential of a good poultry-house, therefore, is ease of 
cleaning and disinfection. All fixtures and appliances should 
be movable, so that they may be easily cleaned and sprayed. 
The general construction should be as tight as possible, so 
that there will be a minimum of cracks and crevices. It is 
in the cracks that the mites breed. They attack the hens 
when on the nest or the perch and hide in any crack they can 
find during the day. Such cracks as are unavoidable must 
be easily reached. 

Size of the House. — The size of the chicken-house is 
determined by the number of birds to be sheltered, the 
amount of time they will be compelled to stay in the house 
by unfavorable outside conditions, and by its portability or 
permanence. The portable house will necessarily be of such 
size that it can be hauled from one part of the farm to another 
with the motive power available. The topography of the 
farm will influence the size of the portable house somewhat, 
as a very much larger house can be handled by a team where 
the ground is level than where it is rough and broken. 

With regard to the amount of floor space required per bird, 
Dryden 1 estimates that " Where there is little or no snow, or 
where chickens can be out of doors every day in the year, 
about two square feet of floor space will be sufficient. This 
would apply to flocks of twenty or more. For smaller flocks 
a more liberal allowance of space should be made. Where the 

1 Oregon Extension Bulletin No. 2. 



264 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



climate is such that the fowls will seek shelter part of the 
year rather than go outdoors in the yards and fields, more 
space should be provided, say four to five square feet per fowl. 
Halpin 1 says that a flock of fifty hens should usually be 
allowed about five square feet of floor space per hen. He 
further calls attention to the fact that "One hundred hens 
will thrive in a pen 20 x 20 feet, that is, four square feet of 
floor space per hen, but one hen will not thrive in a pen two 
by two feet. As the number of the flock becomes less the 



Fig. 139 




A gr 



farm poultry-house. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



amount of floor space per hen must increase, and anyone 
keeping eight or ten hens should allow at least ten square feet 
of floor space per bird unless he is prepared to give special 
attention to cleaning and bedding the house. Rice and 
Rogers 2 add that " The lighter breeds, because they are more 
active and restless, require nearly as much room as larger 
breeds." App, Waller and Lewis 3 report that the average 
floor-space per mature bird allowed by commercial poultry- 
men in New Jersey was 3.9 square feet, based on a survey of 
150 farms. 



1 Wisconsin Bulletin No. 215. 
3 New Jersey Bulletin, No. 329. 



2 Cornell Bulletin No. 274. 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 265 

Evils of Overcrowding. — When hens are too closely penned 
or are not allowed enough floor and yard space they are 
naturally discontented. Following the laws of nature, that 
both plants and animals shall reproduce themselves most 
abundantly when the conditions surrounding them come 
nearest to fulfilling their wants, egg production is likely to 
suffer under close confinement. 

Besides this, certain vices generally appear in the flock 
of considerable size that is closely confined or whose quarters 
are too small. One of the first to appear is feather-pulling. 
Starting at first as a manifestation of nervous impatience by 
a few birds, it is likely to be imitated by most of the flock, 
with the result that many fowls in the flock are kept rather 
destitute of feathers. If it so happens that the feathers are 
green and a little blood appears, cannibalism is likely to 
develop, and at times is the cause of serious loss. At best, 
protein that might otherwise be used toward the manufac- 
ture of eggs must be used in constantly growing new feathers. 

Egg-eating is very much more likely to develop in a 
crowded pen, largely due, perhaps, to the fact that eggs 
are more often broken under such conditions. Nevertheless 
the loss from such cause may be large. 

A further evil of crowding that must not be overlooked 
is the curtailment of the production of the weaker indi- 
viduals of the flock. Where generous space is allowed each 
fowl the less vigorous ones have more opportunity and are 
likely to respond with a stronger production. A fowl that 
is being continually pecked around, as the least vigorous 
ones are in crowded quarters, cannot be expected to be a 
profitable producer. 

Size of the Pen. — The small flock is usually housed in a 
building containing a single room or pen. Large flocks are 
generally divided in groups even when kept in the same 
house and each group given a separate pen. 

The question of just what constitutes a flock of the proper 
size is a question upon which practical poultrymen differ 
and upon which there is little experimental evidence. The 
natural covey of the wild ancestors of at least a part of our 
domestic hens is five or six. With an unskilled poultryman 



266 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

the individual egg production of hens kept in comparatively 
small groups is higher. On the other hand the more groups 
there are the greater is the labor of caring for them. 

Combining two small flocks in one larger one lessens the 
time necessary for their care by nearly half. Just where 
the increased labor of caring for small flocks begins to 
offset the increased production is impossible to state. For 
general farm practice, where poultry is not a specialty, the 
maximum group is probably about one hundred. This 
would require a pen 20 x 20 feet. 

Foundations. — A good foundation will be solid enough to 
support the building and keep the cold winds from blowing 
under the house, deep enough to prevent heaving by frost, 
and high enough above grade to keep out surface water. In 
most sections it will be found advisable to build foundations 
twenty inches deep to prevent heaving and twelve inches 
above grade to keep out surface water. In order to leave 
room for the opening and shutting of doors where a deep 
litter is used the top of the foundation must be at least six 
inches above the floor level. This brings the tops of the door 
sills eight or more inches above the floor. If for some reason 
it is necessary to locate the house where the texture of the 
ground is such that it tends to hold moisture a tile placed 
even with the bottom and just at the outside of the foun- 
dation, and furnished with a suitable outlet is a necessary 
precaution if the house is to be dry. 

Floors. — The hen-house floor must be moisture-proof, free 
from cracks, and easily cleaned. It should be rat-proof and 
durable. The board floor, if properly laid, is free from 
cracks and is easily cleaned and disinfected. It is usually 
a dry floor, because the air space below it stops capillary 
attraction. It is not a durable floor when compared with 
cement, and it is not rat-proof unless raised well off the 
ground as in Figure 142. 

The dirt floor is popular because of the supposed economy 
and its being "nearer nature." Unless certain rather ex- 
pensive precautions are taken the dirt floor is likely to 
be damp. If it is not damp it is dusty. Either condition 
threatens the health of the birds. To keep out the capillary 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 



267 



moisture it will be necessary in most locations to excavate 
the floor and put in an eight-inch course of coarse-crushed 
rock. Over this may be laid a course of gravel or cinders, 
and finally the dirt. This will keep out the moisture, but 
will not keep down the dust, which is very irritating to the 
air passages, often producing a cold-like condition that 
develops into roup. Unless fairly frequently replaced the 





Fig. 140 




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A six- or eight-inch course of coarse crushed rock or hollow building-tile 
laid flat should be the floor foundation. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 



dirt becomes contaminated with filth and is a source of 
danger. 

The cement floor is dry, if properly constructed, and is 
sanitary, durable, and rat-proof. It is not a cold floor when 
properly bedded with a straw litter. In order to insure a 
cement floor being dry it is necessary to take a precaution 
similar to the one mentioned in the case of the dirt floor. 



2G8 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

The capillary moisture must be stopped. A six- or eight-inch 
course of coarse-crushed rock or hollow building tile laid flat, 
should be the floor's foundation. Over this may be placed 
a layer of gravel and finally the finishing coat, which should 
be smooth to insure easy cleaning. It is an additional safe- 
guard against moisture with both/lirt and concrete floors to 
make the|floor level six inches above the level of the ground 
outside. *£ 

Fig. 141 




The Kansas colony house. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment 

Station.) 



What seems to be proving a very satisfactory floor is made 
by laying hollow clay building blocks on their flat side in a bed 
of well-settled gravel and plastering the whole with cement 
plaster. This floor is durable, rat-proof, and dry. It has the 
advantage of an air space below it, the same as does the 
board floor. 

Windows. — It is necessary to have windows in a chicken- 
house for both light and ventilation. The window intended 
primarily to furnish light is of glass. The window for furnish- 
ing fresh air is only protected by a light cloth curtain, by 
open slats, or in some cases not at all. 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 



269 



Because of the desirability of admitting as much sunlight 
as possible into the back part of the house it is customary to 
place the glass windows as high as the construction of the 



Fig. 142 




A board-floor house set on cement blocks. The cloth curtains are arranged 
to slide up and down instead of being swung on hinges. (Courtesy of 
Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station ) 

Fig. 143 




A row of half-monitor roof fresh-air houses. (Courtesy of F. L. Sewell.) 



house will allow, and to have their length run vertically so 
that as much as possible of the floor will be swept by the 
sunlight. 



270 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

The custom often differs in the placing of the open window. 
It is usually placed high enough so that the wind will not 
strike the fowls, as in Figure 139, or clear at the floor, as in the 
case of the Tolman house in Figure 162, and the Woods house 
in Figure 143. Either way is satisfactory. The main 
function of this open window is to allow the free admission of 
fresh air without creating drafts. In extreme cold or stormy 
weather these windows should be protected by frames 
covered with light muslin, heavy cheese-cloth, or by a 
slatted frame as shown in Figure 148. 

In the shed roof and combination roof types of houses 
it is usual to have all the openings on the south side, as in 
Figures 139 and 147. For very warm weather it is often 
desirable, however, to have extra ventilation, as is given in 
the house shown in Figure 151. In the combination-roof 
houses of the type shown in Figure 162 the open window is 
placed at the south and the glass window and door on the 
east and west sides. In houses having openings on more than 
one side, care must be taken to see that the fowls are so 
protected that they are out of the line of any drafts. 

Ventilation Systems. — Most of the ventilating systems 
used in stables depend upon a considerable difference between 
inside and outside temperatures for successful operation. 
Owing to the facts that chickens require a much greater 
amount of floor space per hundred pounds of live weight than 
do the larger animals, and that the roof must be high enough 
to furnish head room for the feeder, there is too much cubic 
space in a hen-house for the hens to heat it sufficiently to 
make such systems work. Up to the present time, open- 
front, curtain-front, and slatted-front houses seem to furnish 
the best means of ventilation. Where the summers are 
extremely hot, such ventilation may be supplemented by 
ventilators at the back of the house, as shown in Figure 144. 
This is so arranged that the fowls are never in a direct 
draft. 

Walls and Partitions. — The walls and partitions must be 
solid enough to support the roof and withstand heavy winds. 
They must be draft-proof, dry, and easy to clean and dis- 
infect. Matched boards free from knots, well painted, and 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 



271 



lined with building paper, or covered with prepared roofing, 
will usually be draft-proof. If the boards are dressed on the 



Fig. 141 




END VIEW 




top of Sill. 



End view and floor plan of Cornell laying house. (Courtesy 
of Cornell Countryman.) 



272 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



inside, as they should be, they will be easy to clean. By 
having the siding run vertically instead of horizontally the 



A/esrs /Lfjo a/foooY coop 




Fig. 145 



WIND BAFFLER 



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FRONT V/EW OF COMPLETED HOUSE. 




Front view and framing plan of Cornell laying house. (Courtesy of 
Cornell Countryman.) 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 



273 



disinfectant used in spraying will penetrate the cracks much 
better and render it an easier matter to get rid ot mites 
should they gain access to the house. 



Fig 146 






Deta 



£ross Section of Fee* Hopper 

ils in Cornell laying house. (Courtesy of Cornell Countryman.) 



18 



Fig. 147 




Pl_AN 



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Framing of Front 

Showing front elevation and framing of the " Iowa Colony House" (portable), 
(Iowa Bulletin No. 132.) 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 



275 



Such a wall as this will meet the requirements of most 
climates and will be dry. The greatest difficulty from 
moisture gathering on the walls usually comes from dead air 
spaces in the walls that are double boarded. During the night 
the air between the boards becomes cool. In the morning 
when the sun pours into the pen it warms it faster than it 
does the air shut in between the boards. The result is that 
the wall on the north side in particular will be cooler than 
the air of the pen and will condense the moisture from it. 



Fig. 148 




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A permanent farm poultry house, with slatted front and scratching basement. 
(Courtesy of Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station.) 



Roofing Materials. — The so-called "prepared roofing" is 
the material most widely used for poultry house roofs. It 
has the advantages of being reasonable in price, and draft- 
proof, as well as moisture-proof. It has the disadvantages of 
drawing heat badly when placed on a south slope, unless it 
is painted white, and of ripping in severe wind storms, unless 
cleated down with wooden strips. 

The Straw Loft. — One means of helping to keep the poultry- 
house dry is the straw loft. A loft is built just under the roof, 



276 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



the floor of which is made of rough boards placed one to two 
inches apart. On this floor is placed a layer of straw about 



Fig. 149 






jmSKk 





A good farm poultry house with straw loft. (Courtesy of University of 

Missouri.) 



Fig. 150 




-.'-^•.^.^'LO:iteto"^ 



Sectional view of house shown in Figure 149, showing arrangement of 
straw loft. (Courtesy of University of Missouri.) 



1 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 



277 



two feet deep. Doors or windows open into the loft so that 
there may be a good circulation of air above without creating 
a draft in the pen below. The straw absorbs any dampness 
there may be in the air below through the openings between 
the boards. On clear days the doors or windows in the loft 
are opened and the current of air passing through dries out 
the straw. 

The straw loft also tends to make the house warmer in 
winter and cooler in summer. It acts as an insulator between 



Fig. 151 




Showing ventilator door under eaves and windows for lighting the floor 
under the dropping boards. (Courtesy of Purdue Agricultural Experiment 
Station.) 

the roof and the pen below. It is also likely to be a harbor 
for rats and mice, and mites once established in it are difficult 
to get rid of. So far as the efficiency of the loft is concerned 
the straw may be left from year to year. 

The straw loft is best adapted to the gable-roof houses, 
as shown in Figure 149. It may be used with less con- 
venience in either a shed roof or combination roof house. 

Fixtures. — Those pieces of equipment which are built as a 
part of the house should be simple, few in number, placed 
high enough not to use up floor space, and removable. They 



278 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

will generally consist of nests, perches, a broody coop, and a 
shelf for the watering device and feed hoppers. A dropping 
board beneath the perches is desirable, where bedding is 
expensive or the manure is to be saved for gardening purposes. 
It is essential if the nests are located below the perches. 

Nests.— The desirable qualities of a nest are that it be 
roomy, easily cleaned and sprayed, dark, conveniently 
located, and capable of being closed. For the common 
farm breeds a nest fourteen inches square and six inches 
deep is a good size. At least fifteen inches of head room for 
the hens should be provided. There should be one nest for 
every eight hens in farm flocks of ordinary size and produc- 
tion. In high producing flocks there should be one nest 
for every four or five hens. Enough of the parts should be 
removable so that cleaning and thorough spraying are 
possible. The whole battery of nests should be so arranged 
that they can be taken out of the house for cleaning, spraying, 
and sunning when it appears desirable. 

Dark nests are highly desirable because the hen loves seclu- 
sion for laying. If her whims are satisfied in this particular 
she is very much less likely to steal her nest in undesirable 
places. If the nests are dark, fowls are far less likely to get 
to scratching in the nest, break an egg, and contract the 
vice of egg-eating. Arranging it so the fowls may be easily 
shut out, precludes their roosting in the nests and fouling 
them. This they are prone to do, particularly at molting 
time, in order to escape being crowded by other birds on the 
perch. While the new feathers are coming through they are 
sensitive to being touched by other birds. 

For convenience the nests should be placed at such a 
height that the person gathering the eggs, who presumably 
has a basket or bucket in one hand, may pick up the eggs 
with the other without bending over. 

Probably the commonest location for the nests is under- 
neath the perches, though it is not necessarily the best. Nests 
and perches are the two commonest locations for infestations 
by mites. It would seem that the chance of discovering and 
eradicating them before they have infested both the perches 
and the nests, and so drain the vitality of the laying hens both 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 



279 



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HOUSING AND HYGIENE 281 

by night and by day, is better if these two fixtures were some- 
what separated. When the nests are placed under the perches 
a dropping board is necessitated and the nests must either 
be too low for the convenience of the caretaker or the perches 
too high for the hens in heavy laying. If the perches are not 
more than three feet high the bottoms of the nests will per- 
force be so low as to make it difficult to clean out below them 
and so dark that the floor is of little use for feeding, and the 
hens are likely to lay there rather than in the nests. 

Fig. 154 




A good type of wall nest. 

The perches should be the most frequently disinfected 
of any part of the house. With the nests below the perches 
they are very likely to catch some of the drippings from the 
spray and the eggs be tainted. 

In bedding the nests the same care should be taken as is 
suggested for the hatching nest (see page 198). 

Nests for ducks should always be on the floor. In fact 
there is no need of nests where the floor of the house is kept 
well bedded with straw. 

Perches. — Perches are necessary for chickens, but not for 
waterfowl. The droppings of the former adhere to the feathers 
if the birds are not on an elevated perch. With water- 
fowl the voidings are semifluid and the feathers so arranged 



282 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



that soiling does not occur. The perches should be removable, 
free from cracks, located where there is no possibility of 
drafts, and comfortable. The roosting quarters are likely 
to be the part of the house most often infested with mites. 
Unless the perch is free from cracks and can be removed so 
as to expose the ends, it is very difficult to reach the mites and 
their eggs. Unless the eggs are reached and killed, spray- 
ing only gives temporary relief. In order to avoid drafts 
the perches will be located as far away from the windows 
or doors as possible. In an open-front pen this will usually 
be the back side. 

Fig. 155 




The dropping board should be removable for spraying. Good type of 
broody coop. (Courtesy of Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station.) 



In order to insure comfort the perches provided should 
allow from seven to nine inches of room for each bird and be 
fifteen inches apart, even more room is desirable for the 
Asiatics. All perches should be on the same level to avoid 
the crowding that results from the effort of all to sleep 
on the topmost perch. Good rest is as essential to chickens 
as to any other class of live stock. The most common 
material used for perches is 2 x 4 lumber. This may be laid 
on the side or placed on edge. In the latter case it is well to 
round the upper edges to avoid bruising the feet. 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 283 

If a dropping board is used in connection with the perches 
it should be of the very best of matched material and tightly 
made so that there will be no cracks for mites to find their 
way into. It should be removable so that the ends may be 
easily accessible when spraying. The dropping board should 
be far enough below the perches to permit its being cleaned 
without removing them. 

Dust Wallow. — The advisability of furnishing hens with a 
dust bath is a question upon which poultry men differ. The 
great arguments in its favor are that the hens like it and it 
helps to keep down the lice. However, even where a covered 
wallow is furnished, it makes the house dirty and fills the air 
with dust particles. Almost invariably the hens will come 
outside the inclosure before shaking themselves. If it lessens 
the labor of fighting lice it increases the necessity of the 
rather frequent cleaning of the house. 

Broody Coop. — The broody coop is a great convenience for 
breaking up broody hens, isolating injured fowls, or for keep- 
ing extra male birds where one is alternating males. For its 
main purpose of breaking up broody hens it should be con- 
structed with a slatted bottom. It is often convenient to 
locate the broody coop at the end of the dropping board, 
but it may be fastened to the wall or suspended from the 
roof. 

Feeding Shelf. — It is necessary to have a place where the 
watering device and feed hoppers can be kept so that the 
hens cannot scratch the litter into them. For this a shelf, 
as shown in Figure 157, is convenient. It should be placed 
high enough so that the hens will not be tempted to lay under 
it and it will not be an obstruction in cleaning out the litter. 
It is well to place it near the door for the convenience of the 
caretaker and toward the front of the house. Hens are likely 
to face the light as they scratch and the litter flies toward 
the back of the house more often than any other direction. 

Types of Houses. — Houses are usually classified according 
to the number of rooms or pens they contain, their porta- 
bility or permanence, or their style of roof. 

The term "continuous house" implies that several pens 
have been incorporated in one building and several separate 
groups of birds may be housed under one roof. 



284 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Fig. 156 




:■■: : > 






■ ' 



,x\ 





A slatted feeding shelf. (Courtesy of Purdue Agricultural Experiment 

Station.) 



Fig. 157 




Interior of poultry-house, showing feeding shelf, dry mash hopper, pro- 
tected watering device, broody coop, perches, and dropping board. (Courtesy 
of Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 285 

The term "colony house" usually indicates that only one 
group is housed under one roof and usually at a considerable 
distance from other groups. Portable colony houses are 
comparatively small, so that a team can haul them from one 
part of the farm to another. Permanent colony houses of 
sufficient size to house a colony of a thousand birds are being 
used successfully on specialized poultry farms. In a few 
cases large-sized colonies of chickens are divided into two 
groups, each having its own pen. 

Fig. 158 




There should be at least one portable colony house on every farm where 
chickens are kept. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

The continuous house, containing several pens, is somewhat 
less expensive to construct than colony houses containing 
the same amount of floor space as the respective pens. Its 
pens are better protected in extremely cold weather and the 
labor of caring for the several groups is concentrated. The 
contamination of the ground and the loss of fertility will be 
somewhat greater than with a permanent colony house, and 
a great deal worse than with a portable colony house that 
is moved from place to place. The danger of epidemics 
travelling from flock to flock is very much greater in the 
continuous house. 



Fig. 159 




opening, Q^'x i-£* 

b)e Window 

avicr 



Perspective °^ Framing 




Ridqe Pole: 



Nests 



Centers. 



I> A" 



,Shjddina 



- KoostS) 



Ce rfters 



^■Z*x4"Joet^| 2'x4QufaKte[j Frame oreond |.j -VhejQ.ats | j-So: Detail 



^"N 



6" x (5 Skid 



Longitudinal Section 



,1-loor 

i — i. 



E°EJ 




-I 6i6\Sk'id ■ 

Rear Elevation 

Showing the details of construction of an "A" shaped portable colony house 
suitable for hauling about in an orchard. (Iowa Bulletin No. 132.) 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 287 

The portable house differs from the permanent house in 
that instead of being anchored on a foundation it rests on 
runner sills and may be drawn from one location to another. 
This is highly advantageous in that it is possible to have the 
fowls frequently on fresh ground; it allows the chickens to 
be fitted into a rotation of crops, picking up the waste grain 
and insects in the field after harvest, and dropping fertility 
on the field where it can be used. Dryden makes a statement 
that the droppings of fifty fowls will keep an acre of ground 
in a high state of fertility, and Purvis 1 estimates that one 
hundred fowls running at large on an acre should in the 
summer season of six months have added to its fertility the 
equivalent of at least 200 pounds of sulphate of ammonia, 
100 pounds high-grade acid phosphate, and 60 pounds of 
kainit. 

In those western States where grasshopper outbreaks 
occur, a portable house, full of young chickens drawn to the 
edge of a field in the spring, and moved from time to time, 
will do very much toward preventing damage in case of an 
outbreak. If the house is moved at night with the chickens 
in it, there will be little if any trouble about their returning 
there to roost. 

For most farms it will pay to have at least one portable 
house to be used for the rearing of young stock and later for 
the housing of pullets. Pullets develop much more satis- 
factorily when range raised, and lay better when they are 
kept by themselves. When they are turned in with the old 
stock, they are so abused that their production is cut down 
very appreciably. 

In the winter time the portable house can be drawn up 
close to the dwelling. If there are several of them they can 
be drawn up close together and joined together as shown in 
Figure 160. A furnace pipe furnishes a covered passageway 
and the birds can roost in one house and lay and scratch in 
the rest of them. 

The styles of roofs commonly used in poultry-house con- 
struction are the shed or single pitch (Figure 161), the gable 

1 Poultry Breeding. 



288 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



or double pitch (Figure 160), the combination (Figure 162), 
and the half monitor (Figure 143) . 



Fig. 160 




Showing method of uniting colony houses. (Courtesy of Corn 



Agricultural Experiment Station.) 
Fig. 161 



Ma 




^fn 




Hi "• 
















■ , : ; 



Large portable colony houses, having window for a dust bath. (Courtesy 
of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. 

The full monitor is sometimes used where prevailing winds 
make it desirable to build a continuous house, running north 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 



289 



and south, rather than east and west. The monitor allows 
the morning sun to find its way into the west side of the build- 
ing and the afternoon sun to reach the east side. 

Aside from the special case just noted the particular style 
of roof does not have much to do with efficiency. The shed 
roof is the simplest to build, throws all the rain-water to the 
back, allowing the windows to be placed high, and does not 
expose the roof to the direct rays of the sun. Where prepared 
roofing is used, it lasts much longer on a north than on a 

Fig. 162 




A combination roof house known as the Tolnian house. (Courtesy of Kansas 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



south slope and does not draw heat so badly, thereby 
rendering the house cooler. 

The combination roof is desirable for portable houses that 
are hauled up and down orchard rows, as it will not catch the 
tree limbs so badly as a shed roof. It gives good height to 
the windows where the short slope is toward the front, and 
gives good protection for houses with the open front running 
clear to the ground where the long slope is toward the front. 

The gable roof has the same advantage on a portable 
19 



290 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



house used among trees that a combination roof has. For 
a permanent house it is well adapted for having windows on 
all sides, and for the straw-loft method of ventilation, as 
shown in Figure 164. 

The half monitor roof, as shown in Figure 143, allows a low 
open front, and at the same time admits the sunlight from 
above to the back of the pen, where the roosting quarters are. 

Fig. 163 




A cheap and serviceable house for capons and cockerels that are to be 
marketed before extreme weather sets in. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station.) 

Two-story Houses. — A rather infrequent style of house, used 
with marked success in a few cases, but not fitting in with 
ordinary general farm conditions very well, is the two-story 
house. It has some advantage in the cost of construction 
as compared with one-story houses for the same number 
of hens. It offers the same evils of congestion that the 
continuous house does. If advantage of this style of house 
is taken to house a considerable number of birds under one 
roof it requires that greater attention be given the flocks 
than is generally possible under general farm conditions. 

A successful two-story house sheltering one thousand 
birds is shown in Figure 164. This house runs from northeast 
to southwest, so that at some time during clear days the sun- 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 



291 



shines in every window. The attention necessary to properly 
ventilate a house with windows on every side, so that the 
birds will not be the victims of drafts, is more than can be 
given on the farm where poultry is a side line. In this house 
the birds are fed and have their scratching quarters on the 
lower floor and the roosting quarters are above. 



Fig. 104 




Two-story house. (Courtesy of Yesterlaid Egg Farms Company.) 



Yards and Fences. — For profitable farm poultry production 
there should be a minimum of yards. Insofar as is prac- 
ticable, poultry should be fenced out rather than in. There 
will be far better thrift if the hens are fenced out of the 
garden and the door yard and allowed the range of the farm. 

Stewart and Atwood 1 found that when all other conditions 
were as equal as it was possible to make them, eggs from 
Leghorn hens on free range gave a fertility of 91.5 per cent, 
while eggs from those confined in yards 15 by 100 feet gave 
a fertility of 75.6 per cent. At the same time, 83 per cent 
of the fertile eggs from hens on free range hatched, while 
but 67.5 per cent of the fertile eggs from the yarded hens 
hatched. Bushnell and Maurer 2 found that range, as com- 

1 West Virginia Bulletin. 

2 Unpublished data, Kansas Experiment Station. 



292 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

pared with close confinement, makes a decided difference 
in the bacterial content of the eggs laid, even when the 
rations fed are the same. Whether the difference was due to 
the increase in exercise or the green feed and insects it was 
impossible to determine, but when hens were given free range 
on April 20 there was a marked falling off in the bacterial 
content of the eggs. This change was not due to seasonal 
variation, as summer eggs usually showed more than 10 per 
cent greater infection than spring eggs. 

Fig. 165 




North yards are frequently piled high with snow while the birds are dusting 
themselves to the south of the house. 



When circumstances make it necessary to yard the stock 
the yards should be as large as possible and provision made 
for double yarding. By double yarding, reference is made to 
the practice of keeping the stock in one yard while a crop is 
grown on the other. In this way, by alternating the yards 
from season to season, the ground is freshened, there is 
pasture for the fowls, and the fertility dropped by the fowls 
is made use of. 

It is practically impossible to yard hens at the rate of more 
than four hundred fowls to the acre and maintain a sod. 
Yards that are crowded so as to be kept bare of greenness, 
unless given considerable attention in the way of turning the 
ground over, or by applying lime, or by cropping from time 
to time, are a source of danger. 



HOUSING AND HYGIENE 293 

The efficiency of a poultry fence depends as much upon 
having an invisible top as upon the height. The height of the 
fence will need to be in inverse proportion to the size of the 
yard it surrounds. Any but the Asiatic breed will fly very 
high if they can see a place to alight, and it is necessary to 
have the tops of the gates invisible as well as the fence. 

Care of the House. — The poultry-house should be well 
bedded with straw at all times when it is available at reason- 
able cost. When not available, shavings, cotton-seed hulls 
or other similar material may be substituted. The straw 
should be renewed whenever it becomes badly broken up, 
damp, or so full of droppings that grains fed out of the hand 
are not quickly lost from sight, compelling the fowls to 
scratch to find them. Where birds spend most of their time 
out of doors and the house is so dry that the droppings dry 
out soon after being voided, they need be removed only at 
rather infrequent intervals. If they tend to remain moist 
for some time, however, they should be frequently removed, 
as their presence is likely to cause dirty eggs by being carried 
to the nest on the feet of the hens, and in a moist condition 
they serve as a harbor for germs. 

As a precautionary measure the poultry-house and all its 
fixtures should be thoroughly cleaned and then soaked in 
every part with a good strong disinfectant at least once a 
year, preferably before the beginning of the breeding and 
growing season. This should be repeated promptly upon the 
appearance of any ailment that shows the least sign of being 
communicated from one individual to another. In cold 
weather, low-grade kerosene with enough crude carbolic 
acid to give it a distinct odor is preferable to the use of such 
sprays as are administered in water solutions. 

The most frequent cause for spraying is the appearance of 
the chicken mite. It is usually first noticed on the under 
side of the perches or in the corners of the nests. This tiny, 
spider-like bloodsucker does not live on the body of the hen as 
does the less troublesome louse, but at some place where it can 
make its way onto the fowl's body for the purpose of feed- 
ing with fair regularity. Unless promptly checked, they 
multiply with enormous rapidity, particularly in warm 



294 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



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HOUSING AND HYGIENE 



295 



weather, and quickly sap the vitality of the stock and 
often cause death. In order to eradicate them it is always 
necessary to spray twice and often three times. 

Most of the commercial coal-tar dips kill the mites, but 
it is difficult to make them penetrate far enough into the 
cracks between the boards to reach and destroy the eggs. 
The result is that a new generation soon appears. It is 
necessary to spray again in order to destroy these. The 
period between sprayings is governed by the prevailing 
temperature. If it is very warm the second spraying should 
follow the first in five to seven days. If it is rather cool, 
ten days will be about right. 

Fig. 167 




An excellent type of permanent poultry-house. Note the box for saving 
the droppings at the right end of the building. (Courtesy of Purdue Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station.) 

Value and Preservation of Poultry Manure. — With reference 
to conserving the value of the fertility in the droppings, 
Purvis 1 quotes the New Hampshire Experiment Station as 
saying: "As is well known, when poultry droppings accu- 
mulate under the roosts and when they are left in barrels 
there is a strong odor of ammonia noticeable. The develop- 
ment of such an odor is a sure sign that gaseous ammonia 
is escaping into the air, to be lost for the present." Several 



Poultry Breeding. 



296 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

chemicals of more or less fertilizing value in themselves, 
may be added to the droppings from time to time with good 
effect, both in stopping the waste and in making the air of 
the hen-house more wholesome. The best materials for this 
purpose are gypsum or land plaster, acid phosphate, and 
kainit, a cheap potash salt. Each of the compounds has the 
power of forming new compounds with the ammonia as fast 
as it is set free from the original combination. Wood ashes 
or slaked lime should never be used, because neither com- 
bines with ammonia, but forces it out of the compounds and 
takes its place. W. P. Wheeler 1 states that over 40 per cent 
of the nitrogen in poultry manure is normally lost in drying. 
Philips 2 reports that Leghorn pullets produce about 21 
pounds of manure a year while on the perch. 

Hoskins and Walker 3 report the average analysis of poultry 
manure as showing 1.44 per cent nitrogen, 0.39 per cent 
potash, and 0.99 per cent phosphoric acid. At current 
prices for fertilizers the value of a ton of fresh poultry manure 
is $6.28. On the basis of the average night droppings from 
the medium breeds, reported by the Massachusetts Experi- 
ment Station, 4 the droppings per fowl amount to eighty 
pounds annually. 

1 Twenty-sixth Annual Report, New York Experiment Station. 

2 Purdue Bulletin, 82. 

3 Massachusetts Circular No. 35. 
« Ibid. 



CHAPTER VII. 
THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION. 

The Objects of Feeding.— The purpose of feeding is the 
transformation of vegetable, animal, and mineral matter, 
in forms not edible by man, into food in the form of eggs and 
meat. 

This manufacturing process is accomplished through the 
agency of three physiological processes carried on within the 
body of the fowl. These processes are (1) growth, (2) repro- 
duction, and (3) the storing of fat. Each process is made up 
of a number of lesser ones which are in turn dependent upon 
the proper functioning of many organs and tissues. 

The objects of feeding are to furnish the proper kinds and 
amounts of materials necessary : first, for the maintenance, in 
perfect adjustment, of the organs and tissues concerned in 
these tributory processes, and, second, to furnish the raw 
materials out of which eggs, bone, muscle, and fat may be 
manufactured. 

The Maintenance of Life. — The first use of all feed is to 
support life. Unless life is maintained it is obvious that 
neither growth, reproduction, nor the increasing of flesh may 
occur. The maintenance of life depends upon (1) the pro- 
vision of heat, (2) the renewal of tissues, (3) a supply of 
muscular energy, (4) the elaboration of secretions, and (5) 
the proper activity of the organs and tissues. 

Heat is necessary in order that various functions of the 
body, such as digestion, fertilization, and incubation, may 
be performed, and which are at their best when that degree 
of heat which is recognized as the normal temperature of an 
individual is maintained. The normal temperature of the 
common fowl is generally recognized to be 106° F. This is 
considerably higher than the temperatures maintained by the 
human race or by the common farm animals, and is the result 
of the fowl's tremendously rapid metabolism. It is probable 

(297) 



298 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

that only in the severest weather is feed used directly as a 
source of heat. 

A considerable amount of muscular work must be done if 
the bird is to live. It must at least make the motions neces- 
sary for eating, and most individuals find it necessary to 
move about in the search of feed. This is done by the fowl's 
own volition, and such movements are termed voluntary. 
At the same time there is considerable muscular activity 
within the body of the fowl over which it has no control, 
and which is termed involuntary. Such motion is found in 
the contraction of the gizzard and intestines in preparing 
and digesting the feed. Energy must be furnished for both 
voluntary and involuntary motion. 

All the tissues of the body, whether active or at rest, are 
continually breaking down and must be replaced. Material 
for replacement must be furnished. 

In order that the joints and muscles may move with little 
friction and that the egg may slip down the oviduct to a 
successful exclusion there must be lubricating material. 
And in order that feed may be digested there must be diges- 
tive juices. All these call for the elaboration of secretions of 
various sorts for which there must be material. 

It is a recent discovery that for the proper performance 
of the various organ systems of the body, even for mainten- 
ance, certain substances called vitamins, the chemical 
composition and precise function of which are not understood, 
are necessary. 

The source of the supply of energy, the material for new 
tissues and secretions and of the vitamins, can only be the 
feed. A certain part of the feed, therefore, must always be 
used for fuel, repairs, and lubricants; that is to say, for 
the maintenance of life. With hens in full laying it takes 
amounts varying from a little less than three-quarters to 
about four-fifths of the feed supplied to meet the needs of 
maintenance alone. 1 

Growth. — In reaching a normal size a chick is said to grow. 
Growth, which is primarily an increase in bone and protein 

1 See Tables XXXIV and XLI. 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 299 

tissue, is a necessity of production. Bone furnishes the frame- 
work for the support of the reproductive and vital organs and 
the attachment of the muscles. The protein tissue furnishes 
the material out of which the muscles and bodily organs are 
very largely fashioned. Muscle, which is termed lean meat 
when used for food, is one of the ultimate objects of poultry 
production, and in the case of turkeys and most waterfowl 
is the primary object. The development of the vital organs 
is necessary to the maintenance of life itself, while the repro- 
ductive organs are responsible, not only for the perpetuation 
of the race, but, in the case of the hen, for the manufacture 
of the primary product. 

Growth is possible only when there is some source of supply 
from which bone and protein tissue, as well as certain growth 
promoting substances (vitamins) may be drawn. This 
source can only be the feed that is fed in excess of that needed 
for the bare maintenance of life. 

Reproduction. — When growth is complete, or is nearing 
completion, reproduction usually occurs. This is a necessary 
process of production, not only from the stand-point of the 
perpetuation of the race, as in all species, but, in the case of 
the hen, because the egg, representing one stage in the repro- 
ductive cycle, is so highly prized for human food as to have 
a great commercial value. The whole philosophy of egg 
production is bound up in the effort to induce abundant 
reproduction. 

Just as growth is possible when the material out of which 
growth is made is furnished in excess of that necessary to 
merely maintain life, so reproduction can only occur when an 
excess of feed is furnished. While generous reproduction 
depends on several conditions, it cannot be accomplished at 
all without material out of which to form the potential new 
creature, and which is furnished only in the form of feed. 

Fattening. — In all birds, and especially in those that have 
ceased to grow or reproduce, some of the feed consumed 
above that necessary for maintenance is stored up in the 
body as a reserve in case the regular supply of feed fails. 
This surplus is stored in the form of fat, and increases not 
only the quantity but the quality of poultry flesh. 



300 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



THE NUTRIENTS. 

Every constituent of the feed that can yield heat or energy 
or can serve for the production of body tissue is called a 
nutrient. All poultry feedstuffs are composed of one or 
more of the following groups of nutrients: (1) water, (2) 
ash, (3) proteins, (4) carbohydrates, and (5) fats. For con- 
venience, these nutrients may be classed as follows: 



f 



Water (1) 
(1) Ash (2) 



Inorganic nutrients 



Dry matter 



(2) Organic nutrients < 



' (1) Proteins 

(2) Carbohydrates 
[ (3) Fats 



(1) Crude fiber 

(2) Nitrogen- 
free extract 



Of these, water alone is a definite chemical compound. 
Ash, protein, carbohydrate, and fats, which collectively 
form the dry matter, are classes or groups of compounds 
having certain distinctive characteristics. 

Relation of the Nutrients to Production. — Both the fowl's 
body and the egg are composed of the same five groups of 
compounds. These compounds are not in most cases trans- 
ferred directly as such from the feed to the tissues, but are 
split up in the digestive tract, absorbed and rebuilt into the 
body. 

There is, however, a close relation between the nutrient 
composition of the feed and its use in building tissue. The 
ash in the body or in the egg can only come from the ash in 
the feed. The protein of the body can be built up and the 
protein of the egg elaborated only when protein of the proper 
kinds is furnished in the feed. While, as is shown elsewhere, 
fat may be manufactured from protein, it is normally made 
over from fats in the feed or built up from carbohydrate from 
the same source. The very small amount of carbohydrate in 
the fowl's body and the still smaller amount in the egg 
usually have the carbohydrate of the feed as their original 
source. 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 301 

Water. — Water plays a highly important part in the pro- 
cesses which collectively result in production. (1) It serves 
to soften the feed in the crop, preparing it for maceration 
in the gizzard. (2) It is a constituent part of the body of the 
fowl and of the contents of the egg, comprising over 55 per 
cent of the former and more than 65 per cent of the latter. 
A dozen eggs of good size contain a pint of water. (3) It 
serves as a carrier, transporting the end products of digestion 
from the digestive tract to all parts of the body and carrying 
the waste products from all parts of the body to the points 
of elimination. (4) It serves to cool the body by evapora- 
tion through the air sacs and lungs and keep its various parts 
at the same temperature. (5) It aids in the process of diges- 
tion and absorption, by dissolving the end products of diges- 
tion that are too concentrated to penetrate the walls of 
the intestine. (6) It acts as a lubricant for the joints and 
muscles. 

Water usually forms from 8 to 12 per cent of the air-dry 
weight of the common grains which generally make up the 
bulk of the poultry ration. This fact points to the necessity 
of a liberal supply beyond that furnished in the food. 

The lack of water retards most of the processes of the body. 
It hinders digestion and limits excretion. A continued lack 
of water thickens the blood and raises the body temperature. 
Growing chicks are easily stunted in their development by 
a lack or an irregular supply of water. Starving is better 
withstood by fowls than a complete absence of water in 
warm weather. 

Ash. — Ash is a term used to designate collectively the 
mineral compounds found in feedstuffs, the fowl's body, and 
the egg. It varies from 1.1 per cent (gluten feed) to 17.6 
per cent (meat scraps) of the weight of the common poultry 
feeds, averaging 4.66 per cent. It forms 3.4 per cent of the 
live weight of a laying hen and 12.2 per cent of the weight 
of whole raw egg. While the common feeds would usually 
supply sufficient ash to meet the necessities of the hen's 
body, they fall very short of supplying the needs of the 
laying hen or growing chick. 

As far back as 1844, von Bibra, as reported by Emmerich 



302 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

and Loew, 1 found that feeding hens with potato and barley 
alone caused the shell of the egg to disappear. After about 
three weeks laying stopped, apparently due to the ash 
deficiency in the ration. 

The principal ash elements required in poultry feeding, 
aside from oxygen, are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potas- 
sium, silicon, sulphur and iron. Calcium and sodium salts 
are essential for muscular contraction. Calcium as a car- 
bonate forms nearly the entire shell, or 11.4 per cent of the 
new-laid egg. In combination with phosphorus, calcium is 
an important constituent of bone. Phosphorus is found in 
the eggs, where it forms 0.27 per cent of the edible portion. 
Sulphur and iron, which are essential constituents of the 
proteins of the body, are also found in the egg. Silicon is 
found largely in the feathers. 

In the ordinary farm feeds, enough of all the ash elements 
will ordinarily be furnished with the exception of calcium and 
phosphorus, which should be furnished in the form of calcium 
carbonate (oyster shell) for laying hens and calcium phosphate 
(granulated bone) for growing stock. Lewis 2 found that an 
organic source of phosphoric acid such as animal bone was 
much more efficient than an inorganic one such as phosphate 
rock. 

Protein.— The term protein, or more properly crude protein, 
designates the group of compounds found, both in the feed- 
stuffs and the fowl's body and egg, which contain nitrogen. 
These compounds are often referred to as nitrogenous sub- 
stances, because the constant presence of nitrogen is their 
most distinguishing characteristic. 

There are thousands of different proteins all of which may 
be decomposed into eighteen or twenty amino-acids. Among 
these are glycocoll, lysin, argenine, histidin, cystin and 
tryptophan. Certain amino-acids can be built up by the 
body while others cannot. Glycocoll, an essential consti- 
tuent of feathers may be built up by the body while trypto- 
phan, cystin and lysin cannot. Milk casein carries but a 
trace of cystin, which is a sulphur-bearing amino-acid. 

1 Deutsche Revue, July, 1912. 

2 New Jersey Bulletin, No. 265. 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 303 

Commercial meat scrap, on the other hand, is well supplied 
with cystin. Experiments in progress at the Kansas Station 
indicate that possibly the lack of cystin in casein is a limiting 
factor, when casein is used as the main source of protein in 
the laying ration. 

It is because of the fact that nitrogen is an absolute 
essential to animal life that the nitrogenous compounds are 
called "protein," a term adapted from the Greek word 
meaning "to be first." Besides nitrogen, protein compounds 
always contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and some- 
times contain sulphur, phosphorus, and iron. 

As will be seen by referring to Table XXXV, over 21 per 
cent of the entire body of a Leghorn hen is protein, while it 
constitutes 48.9 per cent or nearly half of the total dry 
matter. While it forms but 12.83 per cent of the new-laid 
egg because of the large amount of water and ash, it will 
be noticed that it constitutes 49.8 per cent of the dry matter 
of the contents of the egg. 

In the fowl's body the muscles, skin, feathers, tendons, 
brain, blood, and internal organs are composed mainly of 
protein. The dry matter of the white of the egg is nearly 
94 per cent, protein, while that of the yolk is over 34 per cent 
protein. 

Lewis 1 found that laying hens fed a ration deficient in 
protein not only gave a low production but that the eggs 
produced were undersized. 

Egg white shows very nicely some of the characteristics 
of protein compounds. In analysis it approaches very closely 
the average analysis of proteins as given by Sherman: 2 

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulphur, 
per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent 

Average analysis of proteins 53.00 7.00 23.000 16.00 1.000 
Analysis of egg white . . 52.75 7.10 23.024 15.51 1.616 

When dry it forms a horny substance which decomposes 
in the flame, forming a black mass. At the same time fumes 
are given off, which smell like burning hair or feathers. When 

1 New Jersey Bulletin, No. 265. 

2 Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. 



Protein, 


Ash, 


Fat, 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


21.6 


3.8 


17.0 


19.4 


3.7 


33.9 


12.83 


10.68 


10.59 


12.16 


0.97 


9.74 


12.3 


0.2 


0.6 


17.58 


1.55 


32.23 


48.9 


8.6 


38.5 


33.3 


35.6 


25 .9 



304 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

in solution proteins display a mucilaginous character which is 
made use of in the commercial glues and mucilages. 

The most familiar example of a mixture of vegetable 
proteins is the gluten of wheat. The protein content of 
wheat averages a little less than 12 per cent and of corn a 
little over 10 per cent. Most of the common whole grains 
depart very little from these figures. While some of the 
grain by-products such as wheat middlings (17.8 per cent) 
and gluten feed (25.4 per cent) have a considerably higher 
percentage, they are usually fed in rather limited quantities. 

Table XXXV. — Composition of Fowl and Egg. 1 

Water, 
per cent 
Leghorn hen, entire fowl . .55.8 
Mature Plymouth Rock, capon 41.6 
New-laid egg (entire) . . .65.9 
New-laid egg (without shell) . 74.45 

White of egg 86.2 

Yolk 48.63 

Dry matter in hen 

Dry matter in entire egg 

Dry matter in entire egg aside 

from shell 49 . 8 3 5 38 . 6 

Carbohydrates. — Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen, in which the hydrogen and oxygen 
are almost always in the same mutual proportion as in water 
(H 2 0). They are plentiful in plants, appearing usually in 
the form of sugar, starch, or cellulose As protein pre- 
dominates in the fowl's body, so carbohydrates predominate 
in the structure of the plant. 

The sugars are soluble in the juices of the plant and con- 
stitute the common portable carbohydrate building material 
of plants. Starch is the form in which most plants store their 
reserve. It serves much the same function for plants as 
does fat for animals. The starch stored in the kernel of 
corn and the potato tuber are familiar examples. It is 
with this form of carbohydrate that the feeder of poultry 
has most to do, forming as it does from 50 to 75 per cent 
of the feed of vegetable origin. 

Cellulose is that substance which constitutes the greater 

1 The analyses recorded in this table are from several different sources and 
are not always in exact agreement. 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 305 

part of the skeleton or framework of plants. In connection 
with poultry feeding it is usually referred to as crude fiber 
which is largely cellulose, and will be throughout this work. 
It constitutes from 2 to 5 per cent of seeds and grains. All 
of the other carbohydrates of nutritive value are found n 
the nitrogen-free extract. 

Carbohydrates, which are so plentiful in plants, are 
scarcely found in the fowl's body or the egg. Glycogen, 
an animal starch, is stored in the liver, which converts 
it into a sugar called glucose, and gives it out to the 
circulation, from whence it helps to supply energy to 
the muscles. 

According to Atwater, 1 carbohydrates form 2.4 per cent 
of the total weight of the liver of the young chicken. Lang- 
worthy 2 reports that 0.67 per cent of the egg is carbohydrate, 
one-third of which occurs in the yolk and two-thirds in the 
albumen. 

Fats. — Fat contains the same elements as do the carbohy- 
drates, but in very different proportions. Perhaps the most 
characteristic difference is in the proportion of oxygen, 
which is very much lower in the case of fat. The carbo- 
hydrates are oxidized fats. The comparison between the 
percentage composition of starch and stearin, a fat found in 
both the fowl's body and the egg, is as follows : 





Carbon, 
per cent 


Hydrogen, 
per cent 


Oxygen, 
per cent 


Starch . 


. . 44.44 


6.17 


49.38 


Stearin 


. . . . 76.85 


12.36 


10.67 



Fats (lipins) are present in nearly all grains, but in very 
small proportions as compared with the body of the fowl or 
even the egg. While they form 5 per cent o: the air-dry 
weight of corn and oats and 2.1 per cent of wheat, they 
constitute 17 per cent of the live weight of a nervous, active 
Leghorn hen and 38 per cent of the dry-matter weight. 
Fat comprises 8.9 per cent of the weight of the new-laid egg, 
all but a trace being located in the yolk, of which it forms 

1 U. S. Farmers' Bulletin No. 182. 

2 Ibid., No. 128. 
20 



306 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



33.3 per cent. The fats in both the eggs and the carcass are 
chiefly palmitin, stearin, and olein. 

Fat stores energy and acts as a non-conductor of heat, 
the subcutaneous deposits being a very efficient protection 
against cold. 

Nature's Provision of the Nutrients. 1 — The source of the 
various nutrients in the rations of wild and domestic birds 
is as follows: 



Nature provides 
Worms, grubs, and 

insects. 
Seeds. 

Sprouts and grasses. 



Gravel. 



Water. 



They supply 
Protein. 

Carbohydrate (protein 
and fat). 

Succulence 3 (water, car- 
bohydrate, protein, 
fat and vitamins). 

Ash and grit. 



Water. 



Producer feeds 
Meat scrap, milk, oil 

meal, gluten-feed. 
The grains and their by- 
products. 
Sprouted oats, pasture, 
etc. 

Commercial grit, oyster 
shell, granulated bone, 
etc. 

Water. 



Mutual Relations of the Nutrients. — The elements, carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen, are always present in all three of the 
nutrients. These alone are found in the carbohydrates and 
fats, and the practical difference between the two classes is 
the greatly increased proportion of carbon in the case of the 
fat. It has been found by careful experiment that fat has a 
fuel and energy value about 2.25 times as great as does the 
carbohydrate, principally because of this greater propor- 
tional amount of carbon. That is to say, a pound of fat will 
generate over twice as much heat as a pound of carbohydrates, 
or will furnish the power for more than twice as much muscu- 
lar effort. It may therefore be said to have a feeding value 
2.25 times as great. 

It was shown by Voit and Lehmann (as reported by 
Lusk 3 ), in experiments where rice was fed to geese, that almost 
one-third of the carbon was retained in the bodies of the 



1 Adapted from a statement of Jaffa, California Bulletin No. 164. 

2 Succulence is a form of feed containing a large amount of water, 
succulence is most desirable because of its vitamin content. 

3 Science of Nutrition. 



Green 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 



307 



geese in the form of fat, and that this fat must have been 
built up out of the carbohydrate (starch). 

The great difference between the foregoing and protein is 
the presence of nitrogen in the latter. While fat and carbo- 
hydrate are mutually interchangeable in feeding practice 
to a considerable extent, neither of them can be fed in the 
place of protein. Protein, on the other hand, may to a limited 
extent replace either or both of the other two. This is be- 
cause of the fact that it contains all the elements to be found 
in them (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen), and by wasting the 
nitrogen may be made by the body into energy, or fat. 

Fig. 168 




Laboratory devoted to the study of nutrition of chickens at Kansas 
State Agricultural College. 

This was demonstrated by Wolffberg and confirmed by Kulz 
(as quoted by Lusk 1 ), who showed in feeding fowls chopped 
meat that part of the carbon of the protein was retained in 
the body as glycogen (a carbohydrate of the liver). While 
this is of interest it is not of great practical value, owing to 
the fact that protein is the most expensive of the five food 
nutrient groups and the tendency with most poultry feeders 
is to slight the protein portion of the ration. 

Further Functions of the Nutrients. — Besides furnishing 
material out of which the parts of the body and egg of the 



1 Science of Nutrition. 



308 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

same class are manufactured, as is also the case with ash 
and water, the organic nutrients (protein, carbohydrates, and 
fats) of the feed perform other services to the body. The 
carbohydrates and fats are largely responsible for furnishing 
the energy with which both voluntary and involuntary work 
is performed. The waste tissue is repaired with protein and 
the reproductive elements are largely protein. 

A summary of the uses of the nutrients is given below, 
with the less important class placed in parentheses: 1 

Service Rendered. Classes. 

Furnishing energy. Carbohydrate and fat (protein) . 

Repairing waste tissue. Protein. 

Furnishing material for growth. Protein and ash. 

Reproduction. Protein (carbohydrate and fat). 

Fattening. Carbohydrate and fat (protein). 

THE VITAMINS. 

In the past the feed has been regarded chiefly as the source 
of the material necessary for the constructive processes going 
on in the body and of the energy required to support its 
various activities. This aspect of the matter has been promi- 
nent in the preceding paragraphs. 

Recent investigations, however, are bringing into promi- 
nence another class of influences exerted by the feed upon the 
organism. The study of the vitamins is rendering it increas- 
ingly evident that quite aside from its value as a supply of 
structural material and of energy, the nature of the feed may 
profoundly influence the results of feeding. 

It is clear that the vitamins influence the nutritive value of 
a feeding stuff in an essentially different way than does the 
quantity of ash, protein and energy which it supplies. The 
latter limits the amount of production which the feeding stuff 
can support; the former may determine how much of the 
nutrients supplied may actually be used. A mixture of pure 
nutrients may be prepared upon which young animals fail 
to grow, while the addition to such a mixture of minute 

1 After Jaffa, California Bulletin No. 164. 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 



309 



amounts of substances associated with certain fats enables 
the ration to support normal growth. 

In some ways the vitamins might crudely be compared 
with the lubricants of a machine which of themselves furnish 
neither power nor material, but which enable power derived 
from the consumption of the fuel to be more efficiently used. 1 

The vitamins so far discovered and entering largely into the 
nutrition of chicks are called "fat soluble A" and "water 
soluble B." At least one other vitamin referred to as the 
"antiscorbutic vitamin" is known but just what relation it 
bears to the nutrition of birds is not understood. 

Fig. 169 




A Barred Plymouth Rock male, down on his legs because of a deficiency 
water soluble B in his ration. (Unpublished photograph kindly furnished 
by Hughes and Fox, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



As previously stated the chemical compositions of these 
substances are not known. They have not so far been iso- 
lated as separate substances and are known only by their 
nutritional effects. It is known that certain feeding stuffs 
contain both, or lack one and contain the other. It has been 

1 The foregoing was somewhat modified from a statement by Armsby in 
his "The Nutrition of Farm Animals." 



310 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

possible in some cases to measure comparatively the amounts 
certain feeding stuffs contain through the agency of feeding 
trials. It is indeed possible to state with confidence that 
one or the other is found in abundance in one part of a given 
grain while almost totally absent from another part As 
compared with the nutrients, however, the knowledge of 
them is so far very meager. 

Water soluble B, found in abundance in the grains and in 
the fresh green leaves of plants, is necessary for growth, and 
for the proper functioning of the nervous system in adult 

Fig. 170 




A Barred Plymouth Rock hen which had been fed on a ration deficient 
in fat soluble A. Notice the sore eye. (Unpublished photograph kindly 
furnished by Hughes and Fox, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

fowls. Its absence from the ration prevents or limits growth 
in young stock and brings on nervous disorders in both young 
and mature individuals, particularly the paralysis of the 
peripheral nerves. The latter condition is usually referred 
to as polyneuritis. In growing stock the lack of the water 
soluble causes the atrophy, or at least prevents the develop- 
ment of the internal organs of secretion, including the 
testis and probably the ovary. 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 311 

Fat soluble A is found in abundance in the fresh green 
leaves' of plants and in butter fat. Its lack in a ration brings 
on a general unthrift and in particular a characteristic 
pathological condition of the eyes. 

Both vitamins are more or less easily destroyed, the water 
soluble being more sensitive to adverse conditions than the 
fat soluble. The drying of the legumes to make hay reduces 
their vitamin content and may totally destroy it. Heating 
to high temperatures is also likely to destroy or at least reduce 
the amounts of these substances. 

DIGESTION. 

Definition of Digestion. — Digestion is the process, accom- 
plished by the crop, glandular stomach, gizzard, pancreas, 
liver, and intestine, of so dissolving and chemically changing 
the material taken into the alimentary tract that it can be 
absorbed by the blood and used by the body. 

The Digestive Tract. — "The structure of the alimentary 
canal of the bird suggests that the digestive process is rapid 
and that it partakes of features associated with both the 
carnivora and herbivora. Thus the relative shortness in 
length is a carnivorous characteristic, while the character 
of the diet and the thorough comminution of the food in the 
gizzard are features more akin to the herbivorous type." 1 

Mouth Parts. 2 — The distinctive character of the mouth 
of birds is the absence of lips and teeth, these parts being 
replaced by a horny mandible on each jaw and forming the 
beak of the land fowl and the bill of the water fowl. With 
land fowl the beak is short, pointed, thick and strong, the 
upper mandible curving over the lower. In water fowl the 
bill is longer, less firm, flatter, widened at its outer end, and 
supplied along the edges of each mandible and within the 
mouth with a series of thin and sharp transverse laminae, 
whose purpose is to cut soft herbage. 

1 Brown, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 56. 

2 This account of the digestive tract is gleaned from various sources, 
principally McNair, New York State Veterinary College Laboratory 
Bulletin No. 3, Chaveauxs' Comparative Anatomy of Domesticated 
Animals, and F. Smith's Manual of Veterinary Physiology. 



312 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



The tongue in fowls and turkeys is shaped like the barbed 
head of an arrow with the point directed forward.* The 



Fig. 171 



CECUM 



LOWER MANDIBLE 
TONGUE 

OPENING TO TRACHEA 



MUSCLES CONTROLLING 
TONGUE 



OPENING INTO GULLET 




■gf GALL-BLADDER 
BILE DUCT 



GIZZARD 



PANCREAS 
DUODENAL LOOP 



The digestive tract of the fowl. 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 313 

barb-like projections at the back of the tongue serve the 
purpose of forcing the grain toward the entrance to the gullet 
when the tongue is moved from front to back. In water 
fowl, the tongue is wider, softer, and more flexible. 

The salivary glands are present in the mouth of the com- 
mon sorts of domestic birds, but are imperfectly developed. 
Shaw 1 recently showed that ptyalin, a starch-digesting 
enzyme, is present in the saliva of a chick soon after hatch- 
ing.- The presence of abundant saliva is made unnecessary 
by the fact that the feed is swallowed whole, or in quite 
large pieces, and there is little opportunity for its action. 

Gullet and Crop. — Upon leaving the mouth the feed is 
forced into the gullet by the tongue. The gullet (esophageal 
canal) is distinguished by its enormous expansibility. 
Immediately before entering the body cavity the gullet 
enlarges to form a pouch called the crop (ingluvies), which 
acts as a storage for the food eaten much as does the paunch 
of ruminants. It is into this pouch that the feed finds its 
way. Here it becomes softened and takes on an acid re- 
action. Although a comparatively profuse secretion is 
poured into the pouch, it contains no ferments. Its function, 
if other than storing and softening, is not yet understood. 

Glandular Stomach. — Beyond the crop the gullet contracts 
until well within the body cavity, when it expands somewhat 
to form the glandular stomach (proventriculus), from which 
it passes immediately into the gizzard (ventriculus bulbosus), 
an involuntary sphincter muscle separating them. 

The glandular stomach, which is little more than a thick- 
ening of the gullet wall, does not appreciably detain the feed, 
but surrounds it with an acid gastric juice which passes with 
it into the gizzard. It is supplied with but one type of com- 
plex cells, which secrete pepsin and acid. The pepsin reduces 
the proteid to peptones, which are further reduced by the 
pancreatic juice. Besides furnishing the proper medium for 
the action of the gastric juice, the acid acts as a solvent for 
such mineral matter as is not in assimilable form, thereby 
making its absorption possible. 

1 American Journal of Physiology, 1913, vol. xxxi, No. 7. 



314 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

The Gizzard. — The gizzard is oval in form, having two 
openings on its upper side, one communicating with the 
proventriculus and the other with the small intestine. It is 
depressed on each side, being situated behind the liver 
and partly covered by the lateral lobes of that gland. It 
is composed of two thick, red, powerful muscles covered 
internally with a thick, horny epithelium. 

The gizzard is a very efficient crusher. It has been stated 
that iron tubes capable of supporting a weight of 535 pounds 
have been completely flattened out by passing through the 
gizzard of a turkey. This crushing process is absolutely 
necessary for the digestion of grains, and is most efficient 
only when aided by the presence of grit and gravel taken in 
through the mouth and always present in a normal bird. 
The gastric juice is incapable of digesting the cellulose walls 
of the grains and does not act until the grains are reduced 
by the gizzard to a more or less homogeneous pulp. The 
constant action of the gizzard may be noticed by holding a 
little chick that has been supplied with grit to the ear. " The 
gizzard does not possess digestive glands." 1 

From the gizzard, the partially digested material passes 
into the small intestine. Up to this point there has been no 
digestion of fats, a limited digestion of carbohydrates and 
protein, and a dissolving of mineral elements. 

Pancreas. — Immediately after its attachment to the 
gizzard the intestine is folded in a long loop called the duode- 
num, the sides of which are parallel and inclose the pancreas. 
The pancreas, though it does not come in contact with the 
food material, plays a very important part in the work 
of digestion, and is relatively longer in birds than in animals. 
It secretes a fluid known as the pancreatic juice, which 
contains "proteolytic, amylolytic, and lipolytic ferments," 2 
which help prepare protein, starch, and fat respectively for 
digestion, acting in a slightly alkaline medium. This juice 
emptied into the duodenum by one duct at each end. 

In 1856 Bernard, as reported by Brown, 3 "first pointed 

1 Shaw, Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest in Poul. Husb., vol. i, No. 2. 

2 Shaw, American Journal of Physiology, vol. xx, No. 7. 

3 Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 56. 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 3i5 

out the great vital significance of the pancreas in birds. He 
removed the organ, and observed that while the subjects 
endured the operation well, starch passed through the gastro- 
intestinal tract undigested, and death resulted in from ten 
to twelve days." 

Liver. — At practically the same time that the pancreatic 
juice enters the intestine the bile from the liver is also poured 
in. The function of the bile is to aid in the digestion of fat 
by furnishing the alkali with which it may unite to take on a 
soluble form. It also aids in neutralizing the acid of the 
gastric juice received from the gizzard, so that the pancreatic 
juice may have the proper medium for activity. The liver 
of the chick contains glycogen on the twentieth day of 
incubation. 1 

Besides secreting the bile, an eminently necessary contri- 
bution to digestion, the liver of the goose has been demon- 
strated by Minkowski (as quoted by Brown 2 ) to be the seat 
of much of the synthesis of the uric acid that escapes 
in the urine. It is also the seat of the manufacture of 
glycogen, a carbohydrate whose function is to furnish energy 
to the muscles throughout the body. 

Intestine. — The walls of that portion of the intestine which 
forms the duodenal loop probably secrete no digestive fluids. 
Further on it secretes a fluid (succus entericus) which con- 
tains erepsin and the invertases. Erepsin is an enzyme which 
carries to a conclusion the work of digesting the protein. 
The invertases are enzymes which have the power of 
converting more or less complex sugars into simple ones, 
capable of absorption. 

It will be noticed that there has been no provision for the 
digestion of crude fiber. So far as the all too few digestion 
trials show, crude fiber is almost entirely undigested by 
chickens and geese. In the first three compartments of the 
stomach of ruminants and in the cecum of the horse, bacteria 
have an opportunity to act on crude fiber. 

With fowls, however, bacteria have little opportunity for 
action. As soon as the hard-coated grains become moist 

1 Shaw, American Journal of Physiology, vol. xxxi, No. 7. 

2 Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 56. 



316 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

and soft enough for bacterial action, the material passes 
down the gullet to the proventriculus, where the acid reaction 
checks bacterial action. Immediately after passing from the 
gizzard to the intestine the reaction becomes so alkaline as 
possibly to inhibit their development. The time spent in the 
short rectum, which corresponds to the large intestine in 
larger animals, is so limited and the uric acid from the kidneys 
so plentiful that bacterial growth is again inhibited. 

Besides its digestive function, the small intestine also 
acts as an organ of absorption, as does also the rectum to a 
certain degree, taking in the soluble nutrients and inorganic 
salts. 

Ceca. — At the juncture of the intestine and the rectum are 
two blind pouches, given off from either side, called ceca. 
These are usually four to six inches in length, and more or 
less completely filled with fecal matter. Their function, if 
other than absorption, is not understood. 

Rectum. — The rectum terminates the digestive canal, 
being a short and somewhat enlarged continuation of the 
intestine. It is terminated by the cloaca, a chamber common 
to the digestive and genito-urinary passages, and which 
opens externally at the anus. One marked function of the 
rectum is the absorption of water from the urine, as it is 
delivered from the kidneys by the ureters. The urine appears 
with the feces normally as a white paste. It leaves the 
kidneys in a highly liquid state. The only possible conclusion 
from this and other evidence seems to be that the water is 
reabsorbed by the rectum, to be used further in the economy 
of the body, travelling as it were in a sort of vicious circle. 
Weiner, as quoted by Sharpe, 1 noted that when an arti- 
ficial anus was provided so that there was no chance for 
water to be absorbed by the rectum, hens drank abnormally 
large amounts of water. Pohlman 2 notes that until pulmo- 
nary breathing starts the muscles of the chick embryo contain 
a very large amount of water. This decreases rapidly after 
hatching which he interprets as meaning that most of the 
water in birds is excreted by the lungs. 

1 Sharpe, American Journal of Physiology, vol. xxxi, No. 11. 

2 Anatomical Record, vol. xvii, No. 2. 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 317 

Bacteria and Digestion. — It is probable that bacterial 
action is responsible for a part of the digestive process, though 
studies of the bacterial flora of the digestive tract have not 
proceeded far enough to give a great deal of accurate infor- 
mation on the subject. While there is no opportunity for 
microorganisms to break down crude fiber and make it 
available, as is done in the rumen (paunch) of the ruminants, 
the work of Schottelius (as reported by H. J. Wheeler 1 ) 
seems to show that they enter very markedly into the 
digestive processes. He hatched chickens from eggs which 
were free from foreign organisms, in germ-free air, and fed 
them on sterilized food, only to have them die in two to three 
weeks. If hatched in the same manner and fed unsterilized 
or normal food the chickens lived. Other chickens fed like the 
first until near death were saved by feeding normal chicken 
feces or unsterilized feed. This work was done before 
anything was known concerning the vitamins and it is pos- 
sible that these may have been a factor in the result. 

Disposition. — In comparing fowls with other farm animals, 
besides the anatomical differences, there is a decided difference 
in disposition. Birds are more active, have a higher tempera- 
ture, and more rapid digestion. As a rule, six months 
represents the age of maturity and four or five years the life 
period. 

With these things in mind it is easy to see that all of the 
body processes must be extremely rapid. The relation 
between feed and these productive processes, while no closer 
in point of composition than is the case of other domestic 
animals, in point of time is very much closer. 

The result of wrong feeding is more quickly disastrous 
than with any other class of stock, and for the same reason 
that breakage is likely to be more serious in a high-geared 
as compared with a low-geared machine, the disaster caused 
by wrong feeding, particularly during the growing period, 
is more likely to be so serious as to be permanent. With 
slower-growing animals there is more opportunity for 
recovery and repair. 

1 Rhode Island Bulletin No. 84. 



318 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Physiological Efficiency of the Laying Hen. — In the amount 
of edible food solids manufactured as compared with the 
weight of the dry matter in her body the hen leads all farm 
animals. As shown in Table XXXVI, a three and a half 
pound Leghorn hen, laying two hundred eggs in a year, 
produces five and three-quarter pounds of edible-food solids, 
or 3.8 times the amount of dry matter in her body. The 
cow is the only farm animal which is at all comparable with 
the hen in this particular. 

A Jersey cow weighing 1000 pounds, giving 7000 pounds 
of milk containing 14 per cent solids, would rank as high, 
if not higher, among dairy cattle than the hen mentioned 
would rank among high-producing hens. Such a cow would 
produce 2.9 times her own dry-matter weight in solid food. 

Table XXXVI. — A Comparison of the Hen and the Dairy Cow 
in Physiological Efficiency. 

Dairy cow, Hen, 

pounds. pounds. 

Gross weight 1000 3.5 

Dry-matter weight 340 1 . 5 

Edible solids produced in one year . . 980 5 . 75 
Proportion of dry matter of the body 

to edible solids produced . . . . 1 to 2 . 88 1 to 3 . 83 

Digestibility of Feeds. — The mere chemical composition of 
a feedstuff is of little value in poultry feeding unless it is 
known how much of each nutrient is digestible and avail- 
able for the fowls. It is not enough, for instance, to know 
that oats contain 11.8 per cent protein, 59.7 per cent carbo- 
hydrates and 5 per cent fat. In order to have an intelli- 
gent basis for feeding, it must also be known what proportions 
of these nutrients are digestible for poultry. 

Ash is usually absorbed by the intestine without change 
in composition, and cannot be said to undergo digestion in 
the ordinary sense of the term. Insoluble ash compounds 
may be rendered soluble by the hydrochloric acid of the 
glandular stomach. 

Ordinarily no nutrient is completely digested and assimi- 
lated by fowls. The undigested portion passes through the 
body without change, and has manurial value only. That 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 319 

percentage of a nutrient which is digested is called the 
digestive coefficient of that nutrient. The digestive coeffi- 
cients vary for each nutrient and are determined by direct 
experiment. 

These experiments, which are usually referred to as diges- 
tion trials, are made as follows: A fowl is fed a given 
amount of feed, the exact composition of which has been 
determined by analysis. All the intestinal voidings pro- 
duced during the period are carefully collected, weighed, and 
analyzed, the excreta from the kidneys having been diverted. 
The undigested portions of the nutrients appear in the 
voidings, and the difference between the amount fed and that 
excreted, reduced to a percentage basis, represents the 
digestion coefficient. It is never exactly accurate, however, 
since some waste material is given off from the intestines. 

Digestion trials are very much more difficult with poultry 
than with other farm animals, owing to the fact that the 
urine is not temporarily stored in the bladder and eliminated 
through a separate genito-urinary opening, as in mammals, 
but is conveyed directly from the kidneys through the ureters 
to the cloaca, where it is constantly mixed with the fecal 
matter from the intestines. "The fact that the urine and 
feces are excreted together has formed the chief obstacle to 
progress in the performance of digestion experiments with 
poultry." 1 This is because the so-called urine contains the 
broken-down tissue from the body, which cannot be dis- 
tinguished from the undigested portions of the food by 
present analytical methods. 

The white, pasty material appearing in the droppings of 
birds is uric acid, excreted by the kidneys. This increases 
in amount as the ration becomes more nitrogenous. The 
droppings of wild birds living almost entirely upon worms and 
insects are quite white. 

No satisfactory method of separating the urine from the 
feces has been generally adopted. Some successful work 
has been done by means of a surgical operation, whereby a 
false urinary aperture has been made. In very few cases, 

1 Brown, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 56. 



320 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

however, do the birds operated upon return to apparently 
normal health so that the results of the trials are trustworthy. 
The digestive coefficients of the three organic nutrients for 
those feeds upon which trustworthy work has been done is 
given in Table XXXVII. 

Table XXXVII. — Average Digestion Coefficients of the 
Nutrients with Chickens.' 1 

No. of Organic Nitrogen-free 

trials, matter. Protein. extract. Fat. 

Bran (wheat) 3 46.70 71.70 46.00 37.00 

Beef scrap 2 80.20 92.60 ... 95.00 

Beef (lean meat) .... 2 87.65 90.20 ... 86.30 

Barley ... . . 3 77.17 77.32 85.09 67.86 

Buckwheat . . ... 2 69.38 59.40 86.99 89.22 

Corn (whole) 16 86.87 81.58 91.32 88.11 

Corn (cracked) 2 83.30 72.20 88.10 87.60 

Corn-meal 2 83.10 74.60 86.00 87.60 

Corn-meal and clover (equal 

parts) 3 56.40 71.50 61.60 66.90 

Clover 3 27.70 70.60 14.30 35.50 

Indiawheat 3 72.70 75.00 83.40 83.80 

Millet 2 ... 62.40 98.39 85.71 

Oats (whole) 13 62.69 71.31 90.10 87.89 

Oats(rolled) 4 89.30 80.10 94.30 92.20 

Peas ... .... 3 77.07 87.00 84.80 80.01 

Wheat 10 82.26 75.05 87.04 53.00 

Rye . . 2 79.20 66.90 86.70 22.60 

Potatoes 6 78.33 46.94 84.46 

Digestive Powers of Chickens. — The different structure of the 
alimentary tract of chickens as compared with other farm 
animals would lead one to suspect a different digestive 
capacity and different digestive coefficients. In comparison 
with other animals, fowls show digestive powers most 
nearly comparable with swine, except that in the digestion 
of fat they correspond most closely to the ruminants. Unlike 
ruminants, they digest very little crude fiber. 

While they consume over twice as much feed as is required 
by the same weight in cattle, they cannot make use of the 
coarser kinds of feed, such as hay and fodder. They must 
be fed a concentrated ration made up quite largely of grains 
and their by-products. 

' Rearranged from Bartlett, Maine Bulletin No, 184, who secured the 
data from various sources. 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 321 

While the different nutrients have differing coefficients in 
different feedstuff's and under different conditions, as a rule 
the nutrients rank in the following order of digestibility for 
poultry: Nitrogen-free extract, protein, fat, and crude fiber. 

Variations in Digestibility and Their Cause. — It would seem 
that it should be a comparatively easy matter to determine 
the digestive coefficients of a nutrient aside from the physi- 
ological and chemical difficulties already described. As a 
matter of fact there are many causes of variation in the diges- 
tion of foods which make accurate determinations that may 
have general application difficult. A knowledge of the more 
important known and probable causes should be had by a 
practical feeder as well as by the investigator. These are 
(1) the mechanical condition of the feed; (2) the combination 
of feeds; (3) amounts of feed consumed; (4) the source of the 
feed, whether vegetable or animal; (5) the concentration of 
the feed; (6) its palatability ; (7) cooking and wetting the 
feed ; (8) age and exposure of the grain or grass when cured, 
and (9) age, species, and individuality of the bird fed. 

Mechanical Condition of Feed. — While for some of the larger 
animals grinding certain of the grains increases their digesti- 
bility, this does not hold true for poultry. Fields and Ford 1 
found that chickens digested kafir and corn more completely 
when the grain was fed whole than when it was ground into 
meal. It will be noted in Table XXXVII that over 3 per cent 
more organic matter from whole corn was digested than when 
the corn was cracked or ground into meal. The increased 
digestibility brought about by grinding for larger animals is 
usually because hard grains are not well masticated. With 
poultry the grinding of the feed is involuntary and, unless 
grit is not available, consistently thorough. 

Because of the fact that corn or any other grain is less 
digestible for poultry when ground it must not be assumed 
that it is less profitable and therefore bad practice to feed 
a part of the ration in ground form. (For further discussion 
see page 336.) 

1 Oklahoma Bulletin No. 46. 
21 



322 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Combinations of Feeds. — Some feeds are more digestible 
when combined with certain other feeds than when fed 
alone. Thus Bartlett 1 found by combining 7 per cent bone 
meal with a ration made up of 200 pounds bran, 50 pounds 
corn meal, 50 pounds linseed meal, and 100 pounds gluten 
feed the organic matter was rendered 4.6 per cent more 
digestible. 

Sometimes combining certain feeds adds to the palata- 
bility, thereby inducing a greater consumption of feed, but 
not actually rendering the feed consumed more digestible. 
This is very possibly the case in adding salt to the ration. 

Kalugine (as reported by H. J. Wheeler 2 ) is authority for 
the statement that fine gravel, when fed in combination 
with a ration, increases the coefficient of digestibility of the 
nutrients. 

Amount and Frequency of Feeding. — There is no direct 
experimental evidence bearing on these points. There is 
no reason to believe, however, that, even taking into account 
the involuntary grinding on the part of the fowl, poultry are 
an exception to the rule for other animals, that when large 
amounts of food are consumed the work of the digestive 
tract is not so thorough and the coefficients of digestion of 
at least some of the nutrients will be smaller. With other 
animals this difference is noted with all food constituents 
except fat. 3 

There appears to be small probability that the frequency 
of feeding affects digestibility appreciably. 

Nutrients from Vegetable and Animal Sources. — As will be 
seen by reference to the table of digestion coefficients for 
poultry, protein in all cases, and fat in most cases, is more 
digestible when supplied from animal sources than from 
vegetable sources. These coefficients are borne out by 
practical experience and by feeding experiments generally. 
With particular reference to protein Hartwell and Kirk- 
patrick 4 found that beef scraps and milk albumin showed 
a marked superiority over cottonseed meal, linseed meal, 

1 Maine Bulletin No. 184. 2 Rhode Island Bulletin No. 84. 

3 Kellner, The Scientific Feeding of Animals. 

4 Rhode Island Bulletin No. 45. 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 323 

and gluten feed as a source of protein for growing winter 
chickens, where the same amount of protein was added to 
the same basal ration in each case, and an abundance of ash 
supplied. 

W. P. Wheeler 1 found that with 10 lots of chicks, 6 lots of 
immature pullets, 2 lots of young hens, and 2 lots of old 
hens, fed contrasted rations which were as nearly alike as 
possible, except that all the protein was of vegetable origin 
in one case and 40 to 50 per cent of animal origin in the 
other, with every two lots contrasted, the results were 
markedly more satisfactory where the animal feed was the 
source of protein. The chicks having the animal feed ration 
consumed 12 to 34 per cent more feed and made 22 to 100 
per cent faster gains. 

The pullets fed the animal-feed ration consumed 13 per 
cent more feed and laid 30 per cent more eggs than those 
restricted to protein of vegetable sources, while the old 
hens having the animal protein consumed 15 per cent more 
food and laid 36 per cent more eggs. 

Kempster 2 reports that he could find no evidence that 
vegetable proteins alone or in combination with feed of 
animal origin increased egg production. Lewis 3 found that 
protein from a vegetable source, even when supplemented 
by feeds rich in available phosphoric acid was not efficient 
for growing chicks or laying hens. 

There is much further evidence bearing out the above 
from numerous sources. 

A possible partial explanation of this may be in the fact 
that the protein in the plant is surrounded by cellulose, 
while in animal products it is surrounded by the more easily 
digested fat. 

Concentrated Feeds. — Poultry are able to digest little of the 
bulky feeds, such as the cured hays and fodders. The con- 
centrates, such as grains and their by-products, they digest 
with a fair efficiency. It is possible, however, to secure a 
feed of so great a concentration that the digestive tract will 

1 New York Experiment Station, Twenty-sixth Annual Report 

2 Missouri Bulletin, No. 155. 

3 New Jersey Bulletin, No. 265, 



324 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

become disarranged and fail to carry on the work of diges- 
tion properly, in which case the digestive coefficient would 
undoubtedly be lowered. 

Cochel and Jackson 1 found that rations carrying 3.5 per 
cent of total weight in crude fiber seemed to give better 
results for laying hens than those with a higher or lower 
per cent, and it is reasonable to suppose that at least a 
part of the value of the fiber is to be found in its opening 
up the ration so that the digestive juices may act more 
readily and thoroughly. 

Palatability. — Experimental evidence showing that palata- 
bility in and of itself increases the digestive coefficient of 
feeds is lacking. It is popularly supposed to be the case, 
however, and the supposition does no harm. As Brown 2 
points out in discussing the comparative digestibility of 
oats and corn, palatability and good digestibility are likely 
to go together. Bartlett 3 calls attention to the fact that of 
two mixtures he was feeding in digestion trials, the mixture 
which was the least palatable was also the lowest in 
digestibility. 

The relative palatability of different feedstuffs is some- 
what dependent upon the individual idiosyncrasies of the 
stock. Kempster allowed 15 hens to choose their own ration. 
Eight consumed more wheat than any other feed-stuff. Five 
consumed more kafir, 1 more middlings and 1 more cornmeal. 
The relative digestibility of the nutrients of these feedstuffs 
was not given. 

Cooking and Wetting Feed. — The cooking and wetting of 
feeds have little if any effect upon their digestibility, directly, 
though either may increase the palatability of a ration. 

Rice 4 found as a result of a year's test with forty Single 
Comb White Leghorn pullets, to twenty of which the ground 
or mash portion of the ration was fed wet and to twenty it 
was hopper fed dry, that the dry mash gave better results 
in gain in weight, production of eggs, gain in weight of eggs, 
hatching power of eggs, days lost in molting, mortality 

1 Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 120. 

2 Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 56. 

3 Maine Bulletin No. 184. 4 Cornell Bulletin No. 249. 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 325 

and profit per hen, Atwood 1 concluded, from experiments 
with White Leghorn pullets, "that there was no benefit from 
the extra labor involved in moistening mash as compared 
with hopper feeding if dry." Mairs 2 found that "the loss 
among chicks fed on wet mash was much greater than those 
on dry feed." While none of these experiments included 
digestion trials, the results were not such as to point to the 
probability that moistening the feed made it more digestible. 

Age and Curing of Feedstuffs. — The younger a plant is the 
less crude fiber it contains. Unless, as in the case of young 
rye, it contains a laxative property which brings about its 
voidance before digestion is complete, the younger a plant is 
the more completely will it be digested. For this reason 
young clover is more desirable for poultry feeding than 
fully matured clover, whether it is fed in the green or matured 
state since young plants are richer in the vitamins. Expo- 
sure of alfalfa, clover, oats, etc., to rain during curing will 
also lower the digestive coefficient by bleaching out the 
soluble constituents which are likely to be highly digestible 
and leaving the less soluble and less digestible ones. 

Age, Species, and Individuality of the Bird Fed. — It is prob- 
able that, as in the case of other farm animals, the age of 
poultry does not influence their digestion of the food and 
that different breeds of the same species possess an equal 
digestive power. 

There is considerable variation between individuals of 
the same breed which may be due to some slight physical 
weakness. Bartlett, 3 for instance, reports a Plymouth Rock 
capon that digested 8.1.6 per cent of the organic matter of 
a given ration, while another capon of the same breed digested 
94.1 per cent of the organic matter of the same ration. 

It is not likely that different species of poultry have an 
average digestion coefficient that is the same, any more than 
do horses and cattle. St. Weiser and Zaitschek, as reported 
by Brown, 4 found that the digestive coefficient for the starch 
of millet was 65.80 for ducks and 91.80 for geese. There 

1 West Virginia Bulletin No. 130. 

2 Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 87. 3 Maine Bulletin No. 184. 
4 Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 56. 



326 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

has been very little work done with any species of poultry 
besides the chicken, however, and it is not possible to draw 
general conclusions on the meager data available. 

Nutritive Ratio. — In order to quickly and conveniently 
see the relation between the protein that is digestible for 
poultry and the digestible carbohydrate and fat, what is 
termed the "nutritive ratio" is made use of. The nutritive 
ratio is an arithmetical proportion stating the amount of 
digestible carbohydrate and fat (estimated as carbohydrate) 
that fall to one part or one pound of digestible protein. 

It will be seen by referring to Table LIII, that 100 
pounds of corn contains 8.4 pounds of protein that can be 
digested by chickens, 64.29 pounds of carbohydrate and 4.4 
pounds of fat. As previously noted, fat has a feeding value 2.25 
times that of carbohydrates. It is possible to estimate the 
fat as carbohydrate by multiplying its weight by the factor 
2.25. For the purpose of securing a simple proportion, the 
equivalent of the fat in carbohydrates may be added to the 
amount of carbohydrate found in the corn, giving the pro- 
portion of 8.4 pounds of protein to 74.19 pounds of 
carbohydrate In order to simplify this proportion and 
make it comparable with all other similar proportions, both 
amounts are divided by the amount of protein, giving the 
porportion of one to eight and eight-tenths, and expressed 
thus: 1:8.8. This is called the nutritive ratio of corn for 
chickens. Expressed arithmetically, the process is as follows : 

Digest, fat Digest, cai bohydrate 

(4.4 X 2.25) + 64.29 Second factor of 

^ == °*° > • 

8.4 nutritive ratio. 

Digestible protein 

The nutritive ratio of corn for ruminants is 1 : 9.7. 

In calculating the nutritive ratio, care should be taken 
to distinguish between the amounts of the nutrients consumed 
and the amounts digested. Brown 1 found 100 pounds of 
hens fed on the exclusive diet of corn consumed 4.83 pounds 
of organic matter daily, but they digested only 4.19 pounds. 
The nutritive ratio for corn, as may be seen from Table 

1 Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 56. 



THE NUTRIENTS AND NUTRITION 327 

XXXVIII, was 1 to 8.6 on the basis of the nutrients con- 
sumed, but was 1 to 9 on the basis of the nutrients digested. 
It is the latter ratio in which the feeder is interested: 

Table XXXVIII. — A Comparison of the Nutrients Consumed on 
an Exclusive Diet of Corn, and the Nutrients Digested Per Hen 
for Birds Weighing Between Three and Four Pounds, on the Basis 
of One Hundred Pounds Live Weight. 

Organic Protein, Fat, Nitrogen-free Nutritive 
matter, extract, ratio. 

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 

Consumed 4.83 0.53 0.28 3.89 1 to 8.6 

Digested 4.19 0.45 0.24 3.46 1 to 9.0 

Nutritive ratios are referred to as wide, medium, or narrow, 
when the difference between the first and second factors 
of the ratio is great, medium, or slight, respectively. 

Just what the exact limits of a wide or narrow ration are 
is not fixed with definiteness. For convenience in this 
work, any ratio less than 1 to 5 will be referred to as narrow 
and any ratio having a greater proportion of protein than 
1 to 7 will be called wide. A ratio lying between 1 to 5 and 
1 to 7 will be called medium. 

An illustration of the relation which may exist between a 
proper nutritive ratio and production is given by W. P. 
Wheeler, 1 who reports that a nutritive ratio of 1 to 4.3 gave 
21 per cent more eggs during the more productive months, 
with the heavier breeds, then did a ratio of 1 to 5.8. Hens of 
the lighter breeds gave 26 per cent more eggs where the latter 
ratio was used. 

The nutritive ratio in and of itself, however, is not so 
much emphasized as a guide in feeding practice as in times 
past. This is for two reasons. The first is that various pro- 
teins vary so widely in their nutritive desirability, that a 
proper nutritive ratio from the standpoint of some proteins 
might be a very improper one with others. Thus the most 
efficient nutritive ratio for a ration whose chief source of 
protein supply was meat scrap, might very well differ from 
that where the chief source of protein was powdered milk. 

1 Twenty-sixth Annual Report, New York Experiment Station. 



328 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

In order to determine such matters much careful experimental 
work is sorely needed. 

A further reason lies in the fact the nutritive ratio of a 
feed or ration gives no information concerning its vitamin 
content, the importance of which is increasingly apparent. 
It would be easily possible to prepare a ration in which the 
relative proportion of proteins to carbohydrates and fats was 
highly satisfactory, yet fowls fed on it would die for lack of 
one or both of the vitamins. 



CHAPTER VI IT. 

THE FEEDS. 

CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 

For convenience, poultry feedstuffs may be classified 
according to the five divisions of a ration, which are grain, . 
green feed, mash, mineral feed, and drink, into grains, suc- 
culence, mash constituents, mineral constituents and liquids. 

The Grains. — While chickens are omnivorous feeders they 
are primarily granivorous, or grain eaters. As Jaffa 1 points 
out, rations for chickens are properly built up by selecting 
such grains as are available and reasonable in price, and sup- 
plementing them with the mash, mineral ingredients, succu- 
lence and liquids necessary to the needs of the fowl. 

In experiments carried on at the Petaluma (California) 
Poultry Station with barley, wheat, and corn, it was found 
that as far as egg production alone was concerned, one grain 
was just as valuable as another, provided it was properly 
supplemented. This allows a choice between grains on the 
basis of their price. 

Grains and their products, which make up the majority of 
poultry feeds, are classed among the concentrates for the 
larger animals. They are usually sufficiently bulky to supply 
the needs of poultry in this particular, and roughage, save 
when iV is fed as succulence in its green form, has small 
place in the poultry ration. 

Grains in general are very deficient in fat soluble A. It is 
more abundant in the germ than in other parts of the grain. 
Those grains having a comparatively large endosperm are 
particularly deficient. All grains appear to have an abun- 
dance of water soluble B which is largely localized in the outer 
coating. 

1 California Bulletin No. 164. 

( 329 ) 



330 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Barley. — This grain contains less fat, fiber, and ash than 
oats, but more protein and carbohydrates. It does not rank- 
as high as wheat in digestible protein and contains more 
fiber. It is not as palatable a feed as corn, wheat, or oats, 
but is a good one to add to a ration by way of variety. 

The amounts of digestible nutrients found in 100 pounds 
of whole barley as determined by digestion experiments 
with chickens are 9.3 pounds of protein, 1.2 pounds of fat, 
and 58.4 pounds of nitrogen-free extract. It contains 2.5 
pounds of ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 6.6 for 
chickens. The crude fiber content is 4.2 pounds. 

Buckwheat. — Owing to its large proportion of crude fiber, 
this grain has a lower per cent, of digestible organic matter 
than any of the grains except oats. Fowls do not eat it readily 
because of its dark, unattractive appearance. It has a ten- 
dency to cause light-colored yolks. The amounts of digestible 
nutrients found in 100 pounds of buckwheat as determined 
by digestion experiments with chickens are 6.4 pounds of 
protein, 2.1 pounds of fat, and 51.9 pounds of nitrogen-free 
extract. It contains 2 pounds of ash and has a nutritive 
ratio of 1 to 8.8 for chickens. The crude fiber content is 11.7 
pounds. 

Corn. — As the result of digestion experiments, Bartlett 1 is 
led to remark that his results, "like those of Brown and 
others, show that corn is a most valuable grain for poultry. 
Its palatability and high digestibility has brought it into 
much favor with all poultrymen. It cannot, of course, be 
fed alone, as it is too concentrated a feed and is also deficient 
in protein, but when combined with feeds rich in protein and 
some bulky material, as cut clover, it makes a most desirable 
ration." 

The Cornell Experiment Station 2 records the fact that 
chickens fed an exclusive corn diet failed to develop satis- 
factorily. This was especially true of the feathers, which 
are largely protein. An exclusive corn diet induced sluggish- 
ness and caused the laying on of masses of internal fat. 

1 Maine Bulletin No. 184. * Bulletin No. 25. 



THE FEEDS 



331 



Hughes 1 has, however, shown that corn alone is an ade- 
quate diet for adult pigeons for maintenance for at least one 
year. The protein deficiency in corn seems to be due to the 
poor quality rather than to the quantity. For corn which 
usually contains about 9 per cent protein will produce a very 
slight growth even when all the other necessary dietary 
factors are present in sufficient amounts. A diet containing 
this amount of protein in the form of milk albumen as shown 
by Osborne and Mendel 2 will produce a maximum growth. 
This protein deficiency in corn is undoubtedly due to the 
high per cent of zein, a protein which contains neither lysin 
nor tryptophan, and which is incapable of supporting life. 

Fig. 172 




White Leghorn cockerel at eight months' of age which had been fed only 
corn and salt mixture. (After Hughes.) 



Corn is the best liked grain that is fed to poultry in the 
Middle West. Yellow corn imparts a deeper color to the 
yolk of eggs than wheat or oats and produces yellow flesh as 
a fattening ration. It carries more of fat soluble A than the 
white corn. It also tends to make white birds creamy 
in color. 

1 Kansas Technical Bulletin, No. 5. 

2 Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. xxiv. 



332 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

There is little, if any, advantage in feeding corn cracked 
to fowls that can consume whole grains. Because of its 
cheapness, attractiveness, palatability, and, in the case of 
yellow corn, its effect on the yolk of the egg, it should 
form a large proportion of the ration. 

The amounts of digestible nutrients found in 100 pounds of 
corn as determined by digestion experiments with chickens 
are 8.4 pounds of protein, 4.4 pounds of fat, and 64.29 pounds 
of nitrogen-free extract. It contains 1.5 pounds of ash and 
has a nutritive ratio of 1 to S.S for chickens. The crude fiber 
content is 2.2 pounds. It contains an abundance of water 
soluble B but not enough fat soluble A to produce normal 
growth. 

Cow Peas. — Peas, as well as other leguminous seeds, contain 
a large amount of protein. They are little used as a poultry 
feed because of their scarcity and high price. Manufacturers 
of prepared scratch feeds often include them in the ration 
to narrow it and add to its attractiveness. 

The amounts of digestible nutrients found in 100 pounds of 
peas as determined by digestion experiments with chickens 
are 17.8 pounds of protein, 1.2 pounds of fat, and 47.7 pounds 
of nitrogen-free extract. They contain 3.2 pounds of ash 
and have a nutritive ratio of 1 to 2.8 for chickens. The 
crude fiber content is 3.9 pounds. 

Kafir — The only data to be found concerning the avail - 
abilty of the nutrients in kafir for chickens 1 has been some- 
what criticised and declared untrustworthy by certain 
investigators. While they perhaps cannot be trusted in 
certain details, it appears that in the matter of the comparison 
of the total digestible matter with that of corn, the data may 
be tentatively relied upon. At least, they are the best we 
have. 

According to this data, kafir and kafir meal yielded about 
2 per cent, less total digestible matter than corn and corn 
meal. Judging from its feeding value for swine, it is nearly 
as valuable as corn as a chicken feed. 

The average amounts of the nutrients found in 100 

1 Fields and Ford, Oklahoma Bulletin No. 46. 



THE FEEDS 333 

pounds of kafir are 11.8 pounds of water, 1.7 pounds of ash, 
11.1 pounds of crude protein, 70.1 pounds of carbohydrates, 
of which 2.3 pounds are crude fiber and 3 pounds of fat. 
The proportions digestible for poultry have not been defi- 
nitely determined. 

' Millet. — Millet is similar in composition to oats and is used 
extensively as a chick feed, but it contains too much fiber to 
be a very economical feed. It is supposed to have a beneficial 
action upon the kidneys. Probably because it glistens it 
is one of the first grains that a newly hatched chick will 
pick up. 

The amounts of digestible nutrients found in 100 pounds of 
millet as determined by digestion experiments with chickens 
are 6.8 pounds of protein, 3 pounds of fat, and 61.59 pounds 
of nitrogen-free extract. It contains 2.8 pounds of ash and 
has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 10 for chickens. The crude 
fiber content is 8.1 pounds. Having a comparatively large 
germ it carries enough fat soluble A to support nearly normal 
growth. 

Oats. — The general nutritive value of whole oats for 
poultry appears to be less than that for ruminants and horses. 
This is because the crude fiber seems to be of insignificant 
feeding value for domestic birds. Oats, including the hulls, 
possess the largest amount of fiber and nearly the highest 
of ash of all the cereals, while the percentage of fat runs 
nearly as high as in corn. Hulled oats are similar to wheat 
in composition, except that the fat content is higher. 

The relative amount of hull and kernel governs their 
desirability for poultry feeding. Light oats have a poor 
feeding value because of large per cent, of hull, which is 
about as digestible as straw. Heavy, clean oats are relished 
by chickens and add variety to the ration. 

Hulled oats seem to be especially adapted for growing 
chicks because of their oil content and their stimulating 
effect on the nervous system. 

The amounts of digestible nutrients found in 100 pounds of 
whole oats as determined by digestion experiments with 
chickens are 8.1 pounds of protein, 4.2 pounds of fat, and 
53.5 pounds of nitrogen-free extract. It contains 3.2 pounds 



334 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

of ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 7.7 for chickens. The 
crude fiber content is 10.8 pounds. 

Rice. — While rice is classed as a fattening feed because of its 
large proportion of carbohydrate, nevertheless it is considered 
an excellent feed for little chicks because of its regulating 
effect on the bowels. It is usually fed in the grain portion 
of the ration. In the case of a tendency toward bowel trouble, 
however, it is frequently boiled. The boiled rice is fed as a 
wet mash, and the water drained off and given the chicks to 
drink after being cooled. 

The average amounts of the nutrients found in 100 pounds 
of polished rice are 12.3 pounds of water, 0.5 pound of ash, 
7.4 pounds of crude protein, 79.4 pounds of carbohydrates, 
of which 0.4 pound is crude fiber, and 0.4 pound is fat. 
The amounts digestible for chickens are not known. Hughes 1 
found that pigeons fed on polished rice only, developed poly- 
neuritis in twenty to twenty-eight days. These birds could 
be cured by feeding the polishings, which goes to show that 
there is little water soluble B in polished rice, but an abun- 
dance in the outer coating, taken off in the polishing process. 

Rye.— This grain, although quite similar to wheat in com- 
position, is not suited for poultry feeding. It seems to 
contain some ingredient which renders it unpalatable to the 
fowl though this is possibly due to low per cent of fat. When 
fowls are compelled to eat it, it has a tendency to cause 
digestive disorders and affect the flavor of the egg. 

The amounts of digestible nutrients found in 100 pounds of 
rye as determined by digestion experiments with chickens 
are 7.5 pounds of protein, 0.48 pounds of fat, and 64.6 
pounds of nitrogen-free extract. It contains 2.1 pounds of 
ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 8.7 for chickens. The 
crude fiber content is 1.5 pounds. 

Sunflower Seeds. — The high fat content (21 per cent) 
of sunflower seeds, makes them highly prized for feeding birds 
intended for exhibition. The oil produces a desirable gloss 
that is much sought. Their high fiber content (nearly 30 per 
cent) and the prevailing high prices render them unprofitable 
for feeding except for the purpose noted above. 

1 Kansas Technical Bulletin, No, 5, 



THE FEEDS 335 

IT 'h eat.— Wheat is usually spoken of as the best of the grains 
for poultry feeding. This is probably because it contains 
more protein and ash than corn or kafir and less fiber than 
oats. 

As shown by Brown 1 the amount of protein available for 
chickens found in 100 pounds of wheat is 9.69 pounds, 
while the amount found in 100 pounds of corn is 9.27, or 
but 0.42 pounds less. At the same time, wheat contains less 
than one-third as much digestible fat as corn and slightly 
less nitrogen-free extract. 

Brown further reports digestive disturbances when fowls 
were fed on a pure wheat diet, accompanied by loss of appetite 
and bodily depression. Changing to a diet of oats and corn 
stopped the trouble. 

These facts, coupled with its high cost, due to its demand 
for flour-making, indicate that too much emphasis has been 
laid upon wheat as the most important single grain for 
poultry feeding. It is, however, a very valuable addition to 
any ration by, way of variety and because of its palatability. 

The plump, soft wheats are more palatable for fowls than 
the hard wheats, but the comparative feeding value has not 
been determined. 

Shrunken wheat, caused by frost or drouth, contains a 
larger proportion of protein than plump wheat because the 
starch, which is the last material stored in the grain, failed 
to reach it before growth ceased. As such wheat is unfit 
for flour-making, it may usually be purchased at a less price 
than fully matured wheat, while it is more valuable for 
feeding purposes. 

The amounts of digestible nutrients found in 100 pounds of 
wheat as determined by digestion experiments with chickens 
are 8.9 pounds of protein, 1.1 pounds of fat, and 62.6 pounds 
of nitrogen-free extract. It contains 1.8 pounds of ash and 
has a nutritive ratio for chickens of 1 to 7.3. The crude fiber 
content is 1.8 pounds. 

Shrunken wheat has been found to carry 4 per cent 
more digestible protein than plump wheat on the basis of 

1 Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 56. 



336 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

digestion experiments with other animals. On this basis its 
nutritive ratio was 1 to 4.6. 

Wheat Screenings. — Screenings are the refuse of the better 
grades of wheat. They usually contain weed seeds, broken 
and shrunken kernels, and often much trash in the form of 
chaff, straw, and dirt. The feeding value depends upon the 
quality. Musty, smutty, heated, or burnt wheat should never 
be fed, because of the bad effect upon the digestive organs 
of the fowl. 

Mash Constituents. — As previously noted, it is considered 
good feeding practice to furnish about one-third of the ration 
in a finely ground form comprising what is termed a mash. 
The mash furnishes an opportunity of supplementing the 
whole grains which are normally deficient in protein and 
saves the energy that would be used up by the gizzard in 
grinding the whole ration. The mash constituents, which 
are frequently grain or animal by-products, usually furnish 
digestible protein at less cost than do the whole grains. 

The further fact should not be lost sight of, that in market- 
ing nearly every farm product except butter, considerable 
nitrogen, the characteristic element in protein, is being carried 
off the farm. It is excellent farm practice to replace this 
nitrogen by the purchase of the concentrated by-products 
used as the mash constituents of a ration. 

Care should be taken to see that the constituents of the 
mash are evenly ground. Any coarse particles are likely to 
be picked out by the birds, while the remainder of the mash 
is wasted. 

Alfalfa Meal. — During the last few years finely ground 
alfalfa hay has appeared on the market as alfalfa meal, and 
if of good quality is a good substitute for wheat bran, as it 
is high in protein, ash, and fat. In buying this feed, however, 
the guaranteed analysis should be carefully considered and 
an examination made as to the crude fiber content. A large 
proportion of fiber would indicate that the meal was ground 
chiefly from stalks, which are of little feeding value, rather 
than the leaves, which contain most of the nutrients and the 
vitamins. The efficiency of alfalfa meal as a source of the 
latter depends upon the relative proportion of leaves and 



THE FEEDS 337 

stems and also upon the way it is dried, though conditions 
governing the latter are not well understood. 

Other alfalfa feeds, known as chopped and shredded alfalfa, 
are more easily examined and less liable to be of a poor grade 
because of their coarser condition than alfalfa meal. Al- 
though alfalfa feed contains a large percentage of nitrogen 
compounds, it must be remembered that they are made from 
alfalfa hay and not concentrates, and therefore should not 
be fed to excess because of their high crude fiber content and 
low availability. They may be used with good results up 
to 20 per cent of the mash portion of the ration, provided no 
bran is used. The total amount of bran or alfalfa meal 
should not exceed 25 per cent of the mash at any time. 

Alfalfa meal has the same composition as does the best 
quality of alfalfa hay. In protein content it is ahead of that 
reported for bran or middlings, but the total food value of 
the latter is greater because they contain comparatively little 
fiber (average 5 per cent) as compared with alfalfa meal 
(over 26 per cent). 

The average amounts of the nutrients found in 100 pounds 
of alfalfa meal are 8.8 pounds of water, 9 pounds of ash, 
14.3 pounds of crude protein, 65.9 pounds of carbohydrates, 
of which 30.1 pounds are crude fiber, and 2 pounds are fat. 
The amounts digestible for chickens are not known. Under 
certain not well-understood conditions it may serve as a 
source of both the vitamins. 

Barley (Ground). — "Barley meal, or ground barley, is an 
excellent material to use in a mash, but great care must be 
taken in preparing it. It is necessary either to have the entire 
grain evenly ground or sift it before using, or the hulls cause 
trouble in the chicken's crop, especially when dry mash is 
used. Care must be exercised in the sifting or a considerable 
part of the nutritious bran will be discarded with the hulls, 
causing unnecessary waste." 1 Where barley meal can be 
purchased at a reasonable price it is an excellent addition 
to a fattening ration as well as to a mash. 

1 Jaffa, California Bulletin No. 164. 
22 



338 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Brewers' Grains. — Brewers' grains are a barley refuse from 
the brewing of alcoholic beverages and are sold on the 
market both wet and dry. Wet brewers' grains can be pur- 
chased only in the vicinity of breweries, where they may be 
hauled directly to the farm, because of their high water 
content and the ease with which fermentation takes place. 
Wet grains make an excellent food, as they are succulent, 
palatable, and nutritious. Care should be taken, however, 
that they be fresh and unfermented, as, if strong or musty, 
they will affect the flavor of the egg. 

Dried brewers' grains are the wet grains with the moisture 
driven off. In this state they have good keeping qualities 
and are light in weight, thus enabling them to be shipped to 
distant markets. Because of their high protein and fat 
content, together with their light, chaffy nature, they 
make a valuable addition to the mash portion of the ration 
and form a good supplementary food to corn meal and wheat 
middlings. 

The average amounts of the nutrients found in 100 pounds 
of dried brewers' grains are 7.5 pounds of water, 3.5 pounds of 
ash, 26.5 pounds of crude protein, 55.6 pounds of carbo- 
hydrates, of which 14.6 pounds are crude fiber, and 6.9 
pounds are fat. The amounts digestible for chickens are not 
known. 

Buckwheat Bran and Middlings. — In the preparation of 
buckwheat flour the outer layers of the kernel are separated 
into the hulls and middlings. The hulls, which have but 
very little feeding value, are sometimes mixed with a varying 
proportion of the middlings and sold as buckwheat bran. 
This feed is a better cattle than poultry feed, however, as 
poultry do not require the hulls to add bulk to the ration. 

Buckwheat middlings are high in protein and fat, and are 
oftentimes used in fattening rations to produce white flesh. 
When buckwheat feeds of any kind, either whole grain or 
ground, are fed, they have a tendency to lighten the color of 
the yolks of the eggs. 

The average amounts of nutrients found in 100 pounds of 
buckwheat middlings are 12 pounds of water, 4.8 pounds of 
ash, 28.3 pounds of crude protein, 47.5 pounds of carbo- 



THE FEEDS 339 

hydrates, of which 4.8 pounds are fiber, and 7.4 pounds are 
fat. The amounts digestible for chickens are unknown. 

Condiments. — The advisability of feeding stimulating foods 
like pepper and mustard is a point upon which opinion is 
divided. The belief that such feeds will sometimes stimulate 
egg production appears to be well founded. It is also true 
that there is always a reaction in the animal body when it 
has been artificially stimulated. In practice it is safe to use 
condiments only with great moderation, not more than is 
necessary to season the mash fairly well. 

Corn Meal. — For use' in mashes, corn meal possesses the 
same desirable qualities as it does in the whole grain for the 
grain portion of the ration. It is also very valuable for 
fattening rations. The bolted corn meal, which has much of 
the bran and germ removed, differs somewhat from corn in 
the amounts of digestible nutrients it contains. These two 
parts contain the vitamins, ash and the best of the proteins. 
On the basis of 100 pounds, it contains 6.9 pounds of protein, 

3.3 pounds of fat, 59.1 pounds of nitrogen-free extract, and 

1.4 pounds of ash. The nutritive ratio for chickens is 1 to 
9.8. The crude fiber content is 1 .9 pounds. Meal made from 
new corn is quite likely to heat in the bin, or even in the sack. 
Heated meal is undesirable for old stock and absolutely unfit 
for chicks. 

Cottonseed Meal. — The evidence relative to the value of cot- 
tonseed meal as a source of protein for poultry is somewhat 
contradictory. Morrison 1 found "that cottonseed meal used 
as a chief source of protein is palatable to fowls" and further, 
"that as far as can be determined (after a six months' trial) 
the general condition of the cottonseed-meal-fed fowls seems 
just as good as the condition of those on beef scrap." 
Bittenbender and Lippincott 2 found in crate-fattening trials 
that cottonseed meal could be successfully substituted for 
meat scrap, that it produced flesh of fine flavor and texture, 
and was more palatable when added to a basal ration of 
ground oat meal than oil meal, meat scrap, mutton tallow, 



1 Mississippi Bulletin No. 162. 

2 Unpublished data, Iowa State College. 



340 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

beef fat, barley meal, or molasses. It was excelled in this 
particular only by corn meal. 

Hartwell and Lichtenthaeler, 1 as the result of a rather 
extensive comparison of cottonseed meal and meat scrap, 
concluded that "If the constituents of bone are supplied, 
there appears to be no reason why cottonseed meal may 
not be used to furnish a considerable portion of the protein 
required by chicks, especially if a moderate consumption of 
food is satisfactory to the feeder. If the most rapid growth 
is desired, regardless of the amount of feed consumed, beef 
scrap will be found more satisfactory, since the chicks con- 
sumed more of the beef-scrap ration when allowed to have 
all they would eat, and made a more rapid growth in con- 
sequence. When limited to the same amount of nitrogen, 
however, the gains were not very different whether cotton- 
seed meal or beef scrap formed a prominent part of the 
rations." 

Jeffrey, 2 however, reports that in experiments including 
Barred and Buff Plymouth Rock and Buff Orpington pullets, 
cottonseed meal was not relished and the birds ate sparingly 
of mash containing it. The pullets were slower in developing 
and coming into laying when the main source of protein was 
cottonseed meal than when it was meat meal. Philips 3 
reports that Leghorn pullets fed cottonseed meal as the chief 
protein concentrate, derived practically no benefit from it, 
laying no better than birds fed no protein concentrate of any 
kind. Pullets receiving their protein mainly from cotton- 
seed meal gave an average annual production of 55.69 eggs, 
while pullets fed on a ration in which 5.3 pounds of cottonseed 
meal was replaced by 50 pounds of buttermilk, gave an average 
annual production of 16(3.87 eggs. There is further evidence 
bearing out Jeffrey's results, and the general opinion among 
poultry feeders is that cottonseed is not a desirable feed, 
Until a greater preponderance of decisive data is secured for 
or against its use, it should be avoided, or at least used with 
extreme caution. 

1 Rhode Island Bulletin No. 156. 

2 North Carolina Bulletin No. 211. 

3 Purdue Bulletin, No. 227. 



THE FEEDS 341 

The average amounts of the nutrients found in 100 pounds 
of cottonseed meal are 7.5 pounds of water, 6.2 pounds of 
ash, 44.1 pounds of crude protein, 33.1 pounds of carbo- 
hydrates, of which 8.1 pounds are fiber, and 9.1 pounds are 
fat. The amounts of these digestible for chickens are not 
known. The vitamin content is small. 

Cut Clover. — Young clover hay cut fine is a valuable feed 
for poultry, though it is not so generally used as alfalfa meal. 
Bartlett 1 found that equal parts of early, fine-cut clover and 
corn meal made a more digestible feed than wheat bran. 
Steamed cut clover, like steamed cut alfalfa, makes a good 
temporary substitute for succulence, but it should be recog- 
nized that such a substitute is only temporary. 

The amounts of digestible nutrients found in 100 pounds of 
early cut clover hay based on digestion experiments with 
chickens are 8.68 pounds of protein, 2.77 pounds of fat, and 
31.77 pounds of nitrogen-free extract. It contains 6.2 pounds 
of ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 4.4 for chickens. The 
crude fiber content is 24.8 pounds. It is similar to alfalfa 
in its vitamin content. 

Dried Blood. — Dried blood is not palatable for chickens. 
Wheeler found that even when supplemented by bone 
meal, dried blood gave a much slower growth when fed to 
ducklings than did one containing meat scraps or another 
containing milk albumin supplemented with bone meal. 
Lack of palatability appeared to be a cause, though blood 
is known to be an inefficient protein, lacking certain of the 
ami no-acids. 

Fish Scrap. — Dougherty 2 found " that a good grade of fish 
scrap gave as good results as commercial meat scrap, and 
when properly fed did not in any way taint the eggs laid." 
Philips 3 found that when the feeding value of meat scrap 
was $23.92 per hundred pounds and of skim milk was $2.04 
per hundred pounds, fish scrap had a feeding value of $27.65 
per hundred pounds. While all these values have been 
criticised for being high, there appears no reason for doubt- 
ing them from a comparative standpoint. 

1 Maine Bulletin No. 184. 

2 California Experiment Station Report, 1914-1915. 

3 Purdue Bulletin No. 182. 



342 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

The average amounts of the nutrients found in 100 pounds 
of fish scrap are 12.8 pounds of water, 32.6 pounds of ash, 
52.4 pounds of crude protein, and 2.2 pounds of fat. The 
amounts of these digestible for chickens are not known. 

Gluten Feed. — In the manufacture of glucose and corn 
starch, the kernels of corn are soaked and separated into germ, 
hull, gluten, and starch. The gluten is dried and ground and 
was formerly sold as gluten meal, containing about 35 per 
cent protein and 3 per cent fat. Because of its high concen- 
tration it has so frequently produced a bad effect on animals 
when used by inexperienced feeders, and also to provide a 
market for corn bran, it is now mixed with corn bran and 
marketed as gluten feed. 

The bran increases the bulk, reduces the fat and protein 
content and increases the proportionate amount of the water 
soluble. The proportion of meal to bran is about 55 per 
cent to 45 per cent. The protein content of gluten feed 
varies so much that it should always be purchased on a 
guaranteed analysis. 

Gluten feed is a valuable source of protein, as it appears 
to be readily digested and palatable. It should never be 
used to entirely displace protein feeds from animal sources 
and should be accompanied by bone meal. 

The average amounts of the nutrients found in 100 pounds 
of gluten feed are 8.7 pounds of water, 2.1 pounds of ash, 
25.4 pounds of crude protein, 60 pounds of carbohydrates, 
of which 7.1 pounds are fiber, and 3.8 pounds are fat. The 
amounts of these digestible for chickens are not known. 

Hominy Feed. — This consists of the hull, germ, and part 
of the starch cells of the corn kernel which are separated 
out in the process of making hulled corn or hominy. This 
feed runs about the same as the whole grain in protein 
and carbohydrates, but is higher in ash and fat. It is an 
excellent poultry feed, but is not used extensively because 
of the limited supply. 

The average amounts of the nutrients found in 100 pounds 
of hominy feed are 10.1 pounds of water, 2.6 pounds of ash, 
10.6 pounds of crude protein, 68.7 pounds of carbohydrates, 
of which 4.4 pounds are fiber, and 8.0 pounds of fat. The 
amounts of these digestible for chickens are not known. 



THE FEEDS 343 

Meat (Fresh) . — Fresh meat is undoubtedly the most palat- 
able feed of animal origin except that furnished in nature 
in the form of insects and worms. It may be ground fine 
and mixed with a wet mash or it may be fed separately. An 
idea of its feeding value may be gathered from the discussion 
of meat scrap. 

Kionka, as reported by Brown, 1 found that an exclusive 
diet of meat increased the uric acid output of chickens 550 
per cent, as compared with an exclusive diet of barley. 
Each fowl receiving large quantities of beef (150 grams daily) 
developed symptoms similar to gout in man, and autopsies 
revealed uric acid in certain of the joints and tissues. This 
same result would probably prevail in the case of overfeeding 
meat scraps and possibly any protein of animal origin. 

Meat Scrap. — Meat scrap, quite commonly called beef 
scrap, is composed of the meat trimmings, including some 
bone, from various animals slaughtered at the packing-houses. 
These are cooked to extract some of the fat or tallow, and 
then ground to varying degrees of fineness and sacked. Being 
cooked dry and fairly free from fat, it will keep for a long 
period if stored in a dry place. 

Meat scrap "should not contain any appreciable quantity 
of hoof, horn, or hair, as these materials have practically 
no food value for the growing chick or laying hen. A pre- 
liminary examination of such food preparations may be made 
by placing a small sample on a piece of white paper and noting 
carefully the particles which have more or less the appearance 
of a 'dark-brown glass.' These represent the hoof and horn, 
are very rich in nitrogen, but not of the form that is adapted 
to the nutrition of fowls. Another method of testing beef 
scrap is to treat a small quantity with boiling water. If 
there is a putrid odor, indicating decomposition, the scraps 
should not be used." 2 

In the buying of this feed, attention should also be paid to 
the guaranteed analysis, as it varies widely, sometimes run- 
ning as low as 20 per cent protein, and as high as 80 per 
cent. 

1 Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 56. 

■ Jaffa, California Bulletin No. 164. 3 West Virginia Bulletin No. 83. 



344 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Meat scrap is the most generally used source of animal 
protein there is, though it is being somewhat displaced in 
some sections by the use of milk and milk by-products. 

Stewart and Atwood report that when the same amount of 
protein was furnished by beef scrap, milk albumin, and fresh 
meat scrap, respectively, to three pens of twenty White 
Leghorns each, ten of which were pullets and ten hens, the 
hens receiving beef scrap laid 386 eggs in 120 days; the ones 
receiving milk albumin laid 228 eggs during the same period, 
while the hens receiving the fresh meat and ground bone 
laid 279 eggs. 

This test began November 1, and at the end of 120 days 
the pens were shifted so that the beef-scrap pen received the 
fresh meat, the milk-albumin pen received beef scrap, and 
the fresh-meat pen received milk albumin. During the 120- 
day period following, the pen receiving fresh meat laid 947 
eggs, the one receiving beef scrap 987 eggs, while the one 
receiving milk albumin laid 935 eggs. 

Philips 1 reports results in which three pens of Leghorns 
were fed corn, wheat, oats, bran, and shorts in the same 
proportion. To the ration of pen No. 1 was added 10 per 
cent meat scraps. To pen No. 2 was added enough skim milk 
to equalize the amount of protein contained in the meat 
scrap of pen No. 1. He makes note of the fact that this was 
about all the milk the chickens would drink. In pen No. 3 
no animal feed of any kind was given. As the result of two 
years' work, the following average egg production was 
secured : 

Meat-scrap pen 135.0 eggs 

Skim-milk pen 133.5 " 

No animal-feed pen 36.0 " 

He further found 2 that meat scrap at $2.50 a hundred 
pounds was slightly cheaper than skim milk at 30 cents a 
hundred pounds when fed to Leghorns. 

In later experiments 3 with White Leghorns which were 

1 Indiana Circular No. 40. 

2 Purdue Bulletin No. 182. 

3 Purdue Bulletin, No. 227. 



THE FEEDS 345 

of better breeding as regards egg production, he found that 
when pullets were fed the same ration except that one con- 
tained 10 per cent meat scrap while the other contained no 
animal feed, the meat scrap fed pullets gave an average pro- 
duction of 179 eggs while the no animal feed birds gave an 
average production of 59.35 eggs. 

It is sometimes claimed that liberal feeding of meat scrap 
injures the fertility of eggs, but so far no definite data on the 
matter has found its way into experimental reports. 

The amounts of digestible nutrients found in 100 pounds 
of meat scrap of good quality, as determined by digestion 
experiments with chickens, are 65.9 pounds of protein, 13.01 
pounds of fat, and pounds of nitrogen-free extract. It 
contains 4.1 pounds of ash, and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 
0.44 for chickens. It contains no crude fiber. 

Middlings (Wheat). — Wheat middlings are more finely 
ground than either bran or shorts, and run lower in crude 
fiber, ash, and protein, but higher in carbohydrates and fats. 
They are frequently only a good grade of shorts, but should 
more nearly approach low-grade flour. They will usually 
contain more gluten than most of the grain by-products, 
and because of their finely ground, heavy character, should 
be mixed with bulkier feeds. 

The average amounts of the nutrients found in 100 pounds 
of wheat middlings are 10.7 pounds of water, 3.7 pounds of 
ash, 17.8 pounds of crude protein, 62.8 pounds of carbohy- 
drates, of which 4.7 pounds are crude fiber, and 5 pounds 
are fat. The proportions of these digestible for chickens have 
not been determined. . They contain less of the water solu- 
ble than bran. 

Molasses. — Bittenbender and Lippincott 1 found that when 
enough molasses was added to a basal ration of oat flour to 
form 10 per cent, of the solid portion of a milk-fattening 
ration, it increased the average gains slightly, though a 
little less feed was consumed. It did not appear to increase 
the palatability of the ration. The flavor of the fowls fattened 
on molasses was excellent (see Sugar, p. 347). 

1 Unpublished data, Iowa State College. 



346 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Oil Meal (Linseed). — In the extraction of linseed oil from 
flaxseed, the residue or cake that is left is ground and placed 
on the market as a stock food of considerable worth. There 
are two methods commonly used in extracting the oil, called 
the old and new processes, respectively. 

In the old process the flaxseed is crushed, heated, placed in 
sacks, and the oil expressed by hydraulic pressure. In the 
new process the oil is extracted by washing the crushed and 
heated seed with naphtha, thus dissolving out the oil. The 
naphtha is then driven out by steam, the seeds dried, ground, 
and sold. 

Old process (O. P.) meal is more valuable as a food because 
it contains a much larger percentage of fat than new process 
meal, and is also rich in protein. It makes a good feed for 
moulting hens, as its oil, being readily assimilated, assists 
in the formation of new feathers. It also has a beneficial 
physiological effect upon the digestive system and seems 
to aid in the assimilation of concentrated rations. Because 
of its laxative tendencies, however, it should not form over 
10 per cent of the ration. It is undesirable for use in wet 
mashes because it tends to gum up the mash, making it 
difficult for the fowls to eat. 

The average amounts of the nutrients found in 100 pounds 
of old process (O.P.) oil meal are 9.1 (9.6) pounds of water, 
5.4 (5.6) pounds of ash, 33.9 (36.9) pounds of crude protein, 
44.1 (45) pounds of carbohydrates, of which 8.4 (8.7) 
pounds are fiber, and 7.5 (2.9) pounds are fat. The figures in 
parentheses represent the amounts in the new process meal. 
Its vitamin content depends somewhat on the process of 
manufacture. 

Red Dog Flour. — This is similar to middlings, but more 
nearly approaches the patent grades of flour. It is richer 
in gluten and has a wider nutritive ratio. It is a valuable 
feed when it can be secured at a reasonable price. Like mid- 
dlings, it should be lightened up with some more bulky feed. 

Shorts (Wheat). — Shorts are composed chiefly of the outer 
portions of the wheat kernel which lie nearer the starch 
than those which go to make up bran. It is practically fine 
bran mixed with low-grade flour. Shorts usually contain less 



THE FEEDS 347 

fiber, protein, and ash and more carbohydrate and fat than 
bran. Very many markets do not distinguish between shorts 
and middlings. 

The average amounts of the nutrients found in 100. pounds 
of wheat shorts are 10.5 pounds of water, 4.4 pounds of ash, 
17.4 pounds of crude protein, 62.8 pounds of carbohydrates, 
of which 6 pounds are fiber, and 4.9 pounds are fat. The 
proportions of these digestible for chickens have not been 
determined. It contains less vitamin than bran. 

Tankage.— Philips 1 used common "digester" tankage in 
comparison with commercial meat scrap in feeding White 
Leghorn pullets with excellent results. He replaced the 
meat scrap in the following ration with 3 pounds of tankage 
and secured an equally good egg production. 

Grain. Mash. 

1 pounds of corn 5 pounds of bran 

1 pounds of wheat 5 pounds of shorts 

5 pounds of oats 4. 5 pounds of meat scrap 

In practice the precise amount of tankage which should 
replace a given amount of meat scrap will depend upon the 
protein content of each. In the work quoted the protein 
content of neither was given. It took about 5.4 pounds of 
feed to produce a dozen eggs when tankage was fed. 

The average amounts of nutrients found in 100 pounds of 
tankage varies, but is on the average 7.5 pounds of water, 
19.7 pounds of ash, 51.7 pounds of crude protein, 7.2 pounds 
of carbohydrates and 14.0 pound of fat. 

Sugar. — Hartwell and Kirkpatrick 2 found that the addition 
of sugar at rates varying from 20 to 100 grams for each quart 
of milk added to a mash made up of 5 parts corn meal, 1 
part wheat bran, and \ part whole milk, and fed to Rhode 
Island Red chicks weighing 1.1 lbs., for two and three weeks, 
for the purpose of finishing them off as broilers, did not bring 
increased gains, nor an increased palatability, as shown by 
the amount of feed consumed. 



1 Purdue Bulletin No. 227. 

- Rhode Island Bulletin No. 145. 



348 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Wheat Bran. — Wheat bran is a by-product of flour manu- 
facture and consists of the outer layer of the wheat kernel. It 
is one of the most popular means of adding bulk to the mash. 
Its chaffy character has seemed to make it particularly well 
suited for mixing with some, of the heavier concentrates, as 
corn meal, oil meal, middlings, and gluten feed. It is also 
said to have a cooling effect upon the digestive tract and be 
slightly laxative in character due to the presence of phytic 
acid. It frequently forms 50 per cent of the constituents of 
a mash intended for mature stock and is just as frequently 
kept constantly before very young chicks without addition 
of other feedstuffs. 

The only data as to its digestibility available represent 
three experiments by Bartlett 1 which uniformly show a 
decidedly low digestibility of the organic matter. He further 
found that a mixture of equal parts of fine-cut clover and 
corn meal was sufficiently bulky to feed with concentrates 
and was more digestible and, for the East at least, a more 
economical feed than bran. 

It may be that bran, like succulence, will continue to be fed 
for its physiological effect rather than its feed value. There 
is need of further light upon its exact value as a constituent 
for mashes. 

The amounts of digestible nutrients found in 100 pounds of 
wheat bran as determined by digestion experiments with 
chickens are 11 pounds of protein, 1.48 pounds of fat, and 
24.79 pounds of nitrogen-free extract. It contains 5.8 pounds 
of ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 2.5 for chickens. The 
crude fiber content is 9.5 pounds. It is high in the water 
soluble but low in the fat soluble. 

Succulence. — Regarding green feed, Jaffa 2 remarks that it 
" must be considered from the stand-point of its medicinal or 
hygienic value rather than from the stand-point of nutrition. 
Some green stuff, like alfalfa and the legumes in general, 
possesses a much higher food value, but the more tender and 
succulent the green, the more it is enjoyed. Some green stuff 
should always be given as a separate feed where it is possible 

1 Maine Bulletin No. 184. 

2 California Bulletin No. 164. 



THE FEEDS 349 

to do so. Alfalfa meal, fed in the mash, does not take the 
place of a succulent feed. At the same time, it must be re- 
membered that kale, cabbage, lettuce, etc., if fed beyond 
the amount necessary for hygienic or physiological purposes, 
become an expensive form of nourishment." Besides having 
a desirable effect on the digestive tract, it serves as an 
appetizer, adds variety to the ration, and tends to give a good 
color to the yolk, owing, according to Palmer and Kempster, 1 
to the xanthophyl the green feeds contain. 

It now appears probable one of the reasons for its great 
desirability in the rations of both growing stock and layers, 
is that the green leaves of plants are a splendid source of fat 
soluble A which is deficient in the grains. 

During the spring and summer months, fowls that run at 
large will find an abundance of succulence, and the problem 
of its supply arises only during the winter. A supply of 
succulence is distinctly a spring condition. 

Alfalfa (Green). — It is frequently claimed by commercial 
egg men that green feed, and particularly alfalfa, is responsible 
for an undesirable condition in eggs which appears in the 
spring, known as "green whites," or "grass eggs." W. P. 
Wheeler 2 states that, while the orange-yellow color of the 
yolk varied in intensity in direct proportion to the amount of 
clover hay and green alfalfa in the ration, the greenish 
color of the white also varied, but not so regularly. 

At the Kansas Experiment Station, Maurer and Harris 
kept six Barred Plymouth Rock hens in an alfalfa field for 
several weeks. The eggs from half the hens were subjected 
to careful qualitative bacterial analysis. Although infection 
was frequent, no pigment-producing organisms could be 
isolated. Alternate eggs from the rest of the hens were kept 
for four weeks at room temperature and blood temperature 
respectively. They were then broken into a white porcelain 
dish and carefully examined for greenish discoloration. No 
grass eggs were found. Until further data on the subject is 
accumulated, no statement on the point is possible. 3 

1 Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. xxxix, No. 2. 

2 Jordan's Feeding of Animals. 

3 A pigment-forming organism has recently been isolated from green 
whites by the Bureau of Chemistry. 



350 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Alfalfa and clover are generally considered to furnish the 
very finest pasturage for fowls. Both are an excellent source 
of the vitamins. Cut alfalfa hay that is cured green furnishes 
an excellent temporary substitute for succulence when 
steamed. 

Beets {Mangel Wurtzels) .—Mangel wurtzel beets are among 
the most convenient forms of succulence for winter feeding, 
all things considered. They are easily and cheaply raised 
and are good keepers. They should not be fed in large quan- 
tities in the early fall, as they have a tendency to cause scours. 
In the winter they may be fed raw at about the rate of 25 
pounds per 100 hens per day. A good way to feed them is to 
split them in halves lengthwise and stick on nails driven in 
the walls of the pen, about 18 inches from the floor, allowing 
the hens to pick at them. As mangels are practically 90 
per cent water, they have a low feeding value except as a 
succulence. Their dry matter, however, contains a large 
percentage of ash. They are low in vitamins. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage forms an excellent early green feed, but 
is more difficult to raise, keep, and has a lower feeding value 
than either beets or turnips. It is rich in water soluble B 
but deficient in the fat soluble. 

Clover.— Simply as succulence, green clover is probably 
just as desirable as alfalfa, though it does not have quite 
as great feeding value. The need of supplying succulence 
usually arises in the winter, when green clover and alfalfa 
are not available. While they are highly desirable for 
pasture or for birds that are confined in bare yards, they 
cannot be considered among the forms of succulence for 
winter feeding as can cabbage, sprouted oats, and mangel beets. 

Lettuce. — Lettuce is used chiefly to furnish succulence for 
brooder chicks in early spring, before other greenness is 
available, and is among the best plants for this purpose. It 
is a good source of the vitamins. 

Onions. — Onions and onion tops are relished by both 
chicks and mature stock, and if fed occasionally give^ a 
welcome variety to the diet and are said to have a beneficial 
effect on the digestive system. Sliced onion is particularly 
valuable in "cheering up" a bunch of brooder chicks that 



THE FEEDS 351 

have become listless and dumpish. When they once become 
acquainted with it, chicks will scrap and tussle over pieces 
of onion about as quickly and freely as over worms. 

Care must be exercised, in feeding onion to laying stock, 
not to overdo the matter. If fed to excess to laying hens 
onions will impart their flavor to the eggs. 

Pumpkins. — Pumpkins form a good feed for fall and 
early winter, but keep poorly. 

Rape. — Rape can be planted in drills and, if not cut below 
the crown, may be gathered several times during the summer. 
It furnishes an excellent source of succulence for birds 
confined on bare lots. 

Rye Pasture. — Because of its early greenness in the spring, 
rye is often planted in the fall. It is liable to cause scours 
if the fowls are allowed to eat too large quantities at first, 
but, if fed with caution, makes an excellent early source 
of succulence. 

Silage. — Little is known concerning the value of silage in 
poultry feeding. Apparently, the fowls relish it and it seems 
to have no bad effects, unless it has been frozen or partially 
spoiled. 

Sprouted Oats. — One of the increasingly common means of 
supplying succulence during the winter is sprouted oats. 
It should be recognized that sprouting only changes the form 
of the feed and does not increase the nutriment. 

There are several ways of sprouting oats. The necessary 
conditions are warmth and moisture. They may be placed 
in a bucket or tub which is filled with water as warm as 
the hand can bear, and left over night. They may then be 
drained off and placed in racks as shown in Figure 173, being- 
spread out until they are about an inch deep. If there is 
a good, warm furnace cellar with a cement floor available, 
they may be spread out on the floor. In either case they 
should be sprinkled with warm water daily. 

In order to prevent mould, Rice and Rogers 1 recommend 
that the oats be treated with formalin. " One pint of formalin 
should be added to thirty bushels of oats. The liquid should 

I Cornell Bulletiu No. 248. 



352 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



be sprinkled over the grain and thoroughly mixed with it. 
Success will depend largely upon the thoroughness of mixing. 
The pile of wet grain should be covered with blankets and 



Fig. 173 




A homemade oat sprouter. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment 

Station.) 

allowed to remain for twelve hours. The blankets should then 
be removed and the grain stirred twice a day until dry, 
requiring usually about two days. It should then be bagged 



THE FEEDS 353 

in sacks which have been sprayed thoroughly with the for- 
malin mixture each time they are used." 

When the top sprouts are two or three inches long, the 
root sprouts will be found to have become closely inter- 
woven so that the whole tray of oats may be picked up like 
a rug and thrown over the shoulder. Tear off as much for 
the birds as they will entirely clean up in twenty minutes 
to half an hour. Bartlett 1 states that "sprouted oats at the 
proper stage to feed will carry about 77 per cent of water, 
2.8 per cent protein, 3 per cent crude fiber, 1.3 per cent fat, 
and 16 per cent nitrogen-free extract. There is an actual 
loss of dry matter in sprouting oats and the only advantage 
of the process is to produce a succulent green food at times 
when grass or other green foods are not available." It 
should be added that green sprouted oats undoubtedly 
supply both the fat and water solubles. 

Turnips and Rutabagas. — While these are a good feed, they 
are not as good a source of succulence as mangels, because 
they do not yield so highly per acre, are poorer keepers, and 
if fed in excess may give a strong taste to the eggs. Also, 
cooking is necessary to make them palatable. They are 
useful, however, to feed in the fall, if enough mangels are not 
obtainable to last the entire winter. 

Mineral Constituents. — Eight and six-tenths per cent of the 
dry matter of the fowl and 35.6 per cent of the dry matter 
of the whole egg are ash, or mineral matter. It can therefore 
be readily seen that it is necessary to supply mineral matter 
in a form that may be assimilated by the fowl, for the rapid 
upbuilding of the bones in the growing chick and the for- 
mation of shell on eggs. It is also necessary that mineral 
matter in a hard form not easily assimilable be furnished for 
the purpose of crushing and grinding the feed in the gizzard 
so that digestive juices may act upon it with ease. 

Bone (Granulated). — The phosphate of lime is as desirable 
for the formation of bone in growing chicks as the carbonate 
of lime is in the ration of the laying hen for the formation of 
the egg shell. 

i California Bulletin No. 164, 
23 



354 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

The customary form for furnishing it is granulated bone. 
This is a by-product of the packing-house and consists of 
animal bones, from which all the gristle and grease have been 
removed, ground to a suitable size varying from powder to 
the size of a grain of corn. 

Rock phosphate (floats) has sometimes been urged as a 
more desirable source of phosphate than bone. H. J. 
Wheeler, 1 and Hartwell and Kirkpatrick, 2 both found that 
ground bone was a better source than the rock phosphate. 

Bartlett 3 found that the addition of 7 per cent bone ash 
to a ration consisting wholly of vegetable matter gave a 
slightly higher digestion coefficient than when the mixture 
was fed without it. Bolte 4 reports that the addition of bone 
ash to a ration whose main source of protein was granulated 
milk markedly increased the efficiency of the ration. 

Fine ground bone contains: 5 

Phosphoric acid 20.22 per cent. 

Lime 28.00 " " 

Protein 26.47 " " 

Bone (Green Cut). — Fresh bone trimmed from meats in 
butcher shops are run through a green bone cutter and used 
for feeding poultry. This is a palatable and nutritious food, 
containing a high percentage of ash in the bone and easily 
digestible proteids in the meat which clings to the bone, 
and is especially good for egg production. This food cannot 
be shipped or kept for any length of time before it spoils. 
Therefore it is usually prepared directly on the farm, or in 
the market for a local trade. Although fowls are more fond 
of meat in this form than any other, care should be taken 
not to feed an excess or any that is tainted in the least. 
When fed at the rate of one ounce per fowl every other day, 
no harm results and it is decidedly palatable. Too high a 
price should not be paid for this feed, however, as it contains 
but about 18 per cent protein and should be purchased on 
the protein basis, using first quality beef scrap as a standard. 

The Massachusetts Experiment Station 6 report bowel 

1 New York Bulletin No. 242. 2 Rhode Island Bulletin No. 145. 

3 Maine Bulletin No. 184. * Rhode Island Bulletin No. 126. 

5 North Carolina Bulletin No. 211 ° Bulletin No. 122. 



THE FEEDS 355 

trouble " among fowls receiving cut bone .... appar- 
ently due to the fact that in spite of the precaution taken 
to distribute it evenly some fowls occasionally secured more 
than their proper share." 

Charcoal. — This is fed for its effect, and probably does not 
enter directly into the nutrition of the fowl. It is an intestinal 
corrective and should be kept before the fowls in a readily 
obtainable form at all times. It is sold commercially as 
granulated charcoal. 

Grit. — The chief functions of grit are to prevent impaction 
in the gizzard and aid it in crushing food, although some 
of it may perhaps be assimilated. Its most desirable quality 
is hardness. If there is not an abundance of gravel where 
the birds may pick up pebbles, grit should be constantly 
supplied. Fowls prefer shiny particles of sparkling grit to 
that which is dull. Commercially, grit appears on the market 
under many names, but is made chiefly from crushed quartz, 
feldspar, phosphate rock, and granite. Oyster shell, which is 
very valuable as a source of ash, is not hard enough to serve 
as grit. 

The size of grit must of necessity be regulated by the 
size of the stock fed. Commercially, it is usually offered as 
chick size, medium, and large size grit. 

W. P. Wheeler 1 found that mixing sand with the food of 
newly hatched chicks resulted in better health for the chicks 
and a more efficient use of food. He also found that ground 
oyster shell could not take the place of sand. 

Salt.— Salt in some quantity is considered necessary to all 
farm animals. It adds palatability to the ration and is 
generally supposed to aid digestion. It should be fed with 
caution. Wheeler 2 reports experiments in the feeding of 
salt in which he found no bad results until he reached a 
proportion of 6.3 ounces per 100 hens. At that point diarrhea 
appeared. This disappeared when the amount of salt was 
reduced one-third. He recommended salt at the rate of 5 
ounces per 100 pounds of feed for mature stock, and that no 
salt be fed young stock until after they are two months old. 

1 New York Bulletin No. 242. 

2 Twenty-sixth Annual Report, New York Experiment Station. 



356 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Payne, 1 however, notes that when salt was used inter- 
changeably in four different mashes it did not appear to 
influence their palatability as indicated by the relative 
amounts consumed. 

Shell (Oyster) . — The necessity of a supply of lime or calcium 
for the formation of egg shells is shown by Wieke (as reported 
by H. J. Wheeler 2 ) in the following analysis of egg shells: 

Per cent. 

Carbonate of lime 93.71 

Carbonate of magnesia 1 . 39 

Phosphate of lime 0.76 

Organic substance 4.24 

W. P. Wheeler 3 found that where oyster shell was the only 
mineral feed given hens, aside from that contained in the 
grains, in one case 84 per cent, and in another over 88 per 
cent of the lime of the egg shell was unaccounted for by 
any feed given aside from the oyster shell. When broken 
glass was substituted for the oyster shell, fewer eggs were laid 
and the shells were thinner. 

Card 4 has shown that the correlation between the number 
of eggs laid and the amount of oyster shell consumed is very 
high (.8724 ± .0079). That is to say, the consumption of 
shell increased or decreased directly as egg production in- 
creased or decreased. 

Oyster shell contains 95 per cent carbonate of lime. One 
pound of oyster shell contains lime enough for the shells of 
seven to eight dozen eggs. Like grit, shell should be fed in 
sizes to suit the size of the stock. Clam shell is not so highly 
esteemed by poultrymen as oyster shell. Hart and Halpin 5 
found that when the exact calcium equivalent was furnished 
from oyster shell and clam shell the former was considerably 
more efficient for egg production, and both were superior 
to lime rock, calcium carbonate and bone. 



1 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Poul. Husb., vol. iii, No. 3. 

2 Rhode Island Bulletin No. 84. 

3 Twenty-sixth Annual Report, New York Experiment Station. 

4 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Poul. Husb., vol. ii, No. 6. 

5 Wisconsin Bulletin No. 319. 



THE FEEDS 357 

The Liquids,— One of the marks of recent progress in 
feeding practice has been the increasing attention given 
to supplying all classes of stock with abundant and suitable 
drink. 

Developments in connection with feeding under artificial 
lights have emphasized the necessity of having drink always 
available, winter as well as summer, whenever the birds are 
off the perches. The growing knowledge concerning the 
vitamins has given a further impetus to the use of milk as 
a regular feature of rations for growing, laying and breeding 
stock, as well as for fattening stock. 

Milk (Butter). — Buttermilk is similar to skim milk, but has 
a still higher feeding value. The amounts of digestible 
nutrients found in 100 pounds of buttermilk, as estimated 
from digestion experiments with skim milk with swine, are 
3.S4 pounds of protein, 1.05 pounds of fat, and 3.92 pounds of 
nitrogen-free extract. It contains 0.7 pounds of ash and has 
a nutritive ratio of 1 to 1.6. It contains no crude fiber and 
an abundance of both vitamins. Dried and semi-dried 
buttermilk are finding their way into the market but their 
value for egg production has not been determined The 
semi-solid milk is used in large quantities at packing houses 
in milk fattening. What effect the process of manufacture 
has on the vitamin content has not been determined. 

Milk (Skim).— Skim milk is being increasingly recognized 
as a valuable poultry feed. Philips 1 reports that Leghorn 
pullets consumed an average of about 93 pounds of skim milk 
a year. This amounts to nearly 5 tons or 1171 gallons for 
each 100 hens. He further found that when all the milk 
the pullets would drink was added to a ration consisting 
entirely of grains, it was at 30 cents per hundred, slightly 
more expensive to feed than meat scraps at $2.50 per hundred 
pounds. 

In later experiments with White Plymouth Rock pullets 
he found the feeding value of skim milk to be $1.60 per 
hundred pounds as compared with a meat scrap value of 
$20.03 per hundred pounds. Pullets fed on a standard 

1 Purdue Bulletin No. 182 



358 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

ration with the animal protein supplied by skim milk gave 
an average production of 140.2 eggs, while pullets fed the 
same ration except that 50 pounds of milk was replaced by 
3.5 pounds of meat scrap gave an average production of 
135.9 eggs. 

Anderson 1 found that the addition of skim milk to a 
ration increased the consumption of other feed. Nixon 2 
found that during the first eight weeks Leghorn chicks 
grew faster when sour skim milk was used for moistening 
the mash than when the mash was fed without milk. Sour 
skim milk was found to have no harmful effect on the chicks, 
even when fed from the first meal. 

Milk may be fed either sweet or sour, but is to be preferred 
sour. Shaw 3 reports that milk-sugar cannot be digested by 
young chicks, but that when this sugar is converted into 
lactic acid by the souring process it is digestible. "Our 
experiments show that not only is lactose not digested (by 
the chick), but it acts as an irritant to the gastro-intestinal 
tract." According to Rettger, Kirkpatrick, and Jones, 4 
"sour milk has a most favorable influence on growth and 
vigor" and "is an important agent in the reduction of 
mortality from all causes." 

Thompson 5 found that when two one-hundred bird lots of 
February hatched White Leghorn pullets were both fed a 
standard ration, but one pen had access to sour skim milk 
at all times, while the other did not, the sour milk lot laid 
3661 more eggs in a year than did the no milk lot. 

Kempster 6 found that 100 pounds of sour skim milk took 
the place of 5.4 pounds of meat scrap in the ration, though 
unfortunately he does not mention the per cent of protein 
the meat scrap contained. 

Milk may be used to moisten mashes, or given the fowls to 
drink. In the latter case particular care must be taken of the 
drinking vessels in warm weather. Unless the precaution of 

1 Indiana Bulletin No. 71. 2 Cornell Bulletin No. 327. 

3 American Journal of Physiology, vol. xxx, No. 7. 

4 Storrs Bulletin No. 77. 

6 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Poul. Husb., vol. iii, No. 2. 
6 Missouri Bulletin, No. 155. 



THE FEEDS 359 

frequent scalding is taken there will be an accumulation of 
solids which will putrify and are likely to cause such nervous 
troubles as limberneck, so-called, and the like. 

The average amounts of the nutrients found in 100 pounds 
of skim milk are 90.1 pounds of water, 0.7 pound of ash, 
3.8 pounds of crude protein, 5.2 pounds of carbohydrates 
and 0.2 pound of fat. The proportions of these which are 
digested by chickens have not been determined. It contains 
both of the vitamins, though not nearly so much. of the fat 
soluble as does the whole milk. 

Milk (Whey). — Whey is low in protein content because of 
the loss of the casein in the making of cheese. It is good for 
moistening mashes or as a drink. Its sugar content furnishes 
nourishment and its acidity aids digestion. Practically all 
the water soluble of milk is found in the whey. 

Water.— This highly important part of all poultry rations 
has been discussed as a nutrient (see page 301). It must 
be further emphasized, that a suitable and constant supply 
of clean, cool water is essential to the best feeding practice. 
To provide water that is always clean and cool is a summer 
problem that must be met by the feeder's ingenuity if he 
is not so fortunate as to have running water available (see 
Figure 176). 

In the northern and central states a constantly available 
supply of water during the winter also presents its problems. 
The recognition of its importance, however, is bringing into 
use water heaters of various styles so designed as to involve 
slight fire hazard and heat the water sufficiently to prevent 
its freezing in the coldest weather. 



CHAPTER IX. 
THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS. 

Definition of a Ration. — Technically, a ration is the feed 
consumed by a given number of birds in a specified time. 
The formula of a ration should include a statement of the 
kinds, proportions, and amounts of feeds included, the time 
being assumed to be twenty-four hours unless otherwise 
stated. In poultry feeding practice, the amount is so largely 
governed from day to day by the judgment of the feeder, 
based on the changing requirements of the birds themselves, 
that it is not customary to specify the amount to be fed in a 
given time, and a statement of the kinds and proportions of 
constituents fed, without regard to the amount, is referred to 
as a ration. 

A Balanced Ration. — A balanced ration is a combination of 
feeds furnishing the vitamins, and the several nutrients in 
such proportion, amount, and form as will, without excess of 
any nutrient, properly nourish a given group of birds for a 
specific time. 1 

FEEDING STANDARDS. 

A feeding standard is a statement of the exact quantities 
and proportions of all the digestible nutrients necessary 
for a ration that is to serve a particular purpose. It differs 
from a balanced ration in that it does not specify the amount 
or kinds of feed from which the nutrients shall be secured 
and thus takes no account of the vitamins. Having a feeding 
standard as a basis from which to work and a knowledge of 
the feedstuff's available, including not only the amounts of 
the digestible nutrients contained but their nutritive effect 

1 Adapted from Henry and Morrison, Feeds and Feeding. 
( 3(H) ) 



THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 361 

as well, the feeder may compute a balanced ration, making 
due allowance for the vitamins. 

There are two methods of calculating a feeding standard. 
One is by means of digestion trials and the other by dietary 
trials. Theoretically, the proper method is by means of 
digestion experiments. While this is possible for maintenance 
standards, it is not practicable for a standard for hens in 
full laying or for growing young stock. This is because the 
necessary technique employed in carrying on digestion experi- 
ments would greatly interfere with egg production or growth 
and so would defeat their purpose. 

The method using dietary trials is the one to which poultry 
feeders must look for the present. By this method the effi- 
ciency of different rations for a given purpose is compared 
and the amounts and proportions of the digestible nutrients 
in the most efficient rations may then be taken as a standard. 

The most complete standards to be had at present are 
those compiled by W. P. Wheeler at the New York Experi- 
ment Station. Unfortunately in the absence of specific- 
data for poultry his calculations were of necessity based on 
coefficients of digestibility observed for other animals. These 
are therefore only approximations to a true standard. It will 
remain impossible to compile a true standard until very much 
more work has been done upon the establishing of the diges- 
tion coefficients of all the common poultry feeds, than has 
been done up to the present time. In the meantime the 
Wheeler standards will continue to be of great service in 
pointing toward the rational feeding of poultry. 

Maintenance Standard. — A maintenance ration is one that 
furnishes a sufficiency of each and all of the several nutrients, 
but no more than is required to maintain a given bird that 
is not laying and is as nearly at rest as possible, so that it will 
not gain or lose in weight. 

Because of the pronounced vitality, the very rapid breath- 
ing, the high body temperature, and the fact that the 
smaller the animal the greater is the surface area relative to 
bulk, and the greater the relative heat production, it might 
be expected that poultry would demand a relatively high 
consumption of carbohydrate. As a matter of fact, while 



362 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

fully nine-tenths of a maintenance ration of the larger farm 
animals may consist of carbohydrate, a somewhat less pro- 
portion prevails in the maintenance ration of chickens. 

The fact that poultry " requires a much higher proportion 
of nutrients per unit body weight, presupposes their adapt- 
ability to concentrated feedstuffs, like the grains." 1 

Table XXXIX. — Digestible Nutrients Required pee Day for Each 
100 Pounds Live Weight for Maintenance. 

Total dry Carbohy- Nutritive 

matter. Ash. Protein, drates. Fat. ratio. 

Capons of 9 to 12 pounds 

weight .... 2.30 .06 .30 1.74 .20 1 to 7.5 

Hens of 5 to 7 pounds 

weight .... 2.70 .10 .40 2.00 .20 1 to 6.2 
Hens of 3 to 5 pounds 

weight .... 3.90 .15 .50 2.95 .30 1 to 7.4 

From feeding trials not covering any moulting period and 
during a time when egg production was suspended, W. P. 
Wheeler 2 deduced the standards given in Table XXXIX 
and the tables following. 

This data was taken from a total of 52 capons averaging 
by different lots from 9 to 12 pounds in weight and fed for 
158 days, and from 69 hens ranging from 3 to 7 pounds 
and fed for 150 days. 

"A ration which corresponds to the standard given for 
maintenance for hens of the larger size could be composed of 
1 pound of cracked corn, 1 pound of corn meal, \ pound each 
of ground oats, wheat middlings and clover hay, \ pound 
fresh bone, and 10 ounces of beef scraps." 3 

Standard for Growing Chicks. — As is to be expected, the 
proportions of protein and ash in a growing ration for chicks 
is even greater than that for a hen in full laying, because 
growth means the building of tissues, the development of 
vital organs, and the growth of feathers 4 that are largely 

1 Brown, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 56. 

2 W. P. Wheeler in Jordan's Feeding of Animals. 

3 Ibid. 

4 Rice, Rogers and Nixon (Cornell Bulletin No. 258) found that growing 
chicks experienced at least four moults by the time they were old enough 
to lay. 



THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 363 

protein, and of bone, which is largely ash. Both are so 
important from the stand-point of growth that they are 
frequently referred to as "the growing nutrients." 

As will be noted in Table XXXV, of the dry matter of the 
hen's body, about one-half is protein and 8 per cent is ash. 
As W. P. Wheeler 1 suggests: "This of itself would suggest 
that a slow growth must follow the use of feeds containing 
small amounts of nitrogenous and mineral matter." The 
proper development of the bony skeleton of the chick is 
dependent upon an adequate supply of ash. If this supply 
is stinted, the chicks quickly show signs of stunting, which 
can never be entirely overcome. 

Wheeler finds that the "requirements of rapidly growing 
young fowls are so constantly changing that a satisfactory 
average ration for any extended period cannot be formulated. 
In the following statement of rations for chicks they are 
averaged for periods of two weeks at different ages during the 
time of most rapid growth. The ration for the last period will 
suffice for several weeks longer, although the amount required 
per 100 pounds live weight will gradually diminish up to 
maturity." 

Table XL. — Digestible Nutrients Required per Day for Each 
100 Pounds Live Weight of Growing Chicks. 





Dry 






Carbo- 




Nutritive 




matter. 


Ash. 


Protein. 


hydrates 


Fat. 


ratio. 


First 2 weeks .... 


. 10.1 


0.5 


2. a 


7.2 


0.4 


1 to 4 . 1 


Second 2 weeks . 


9.6 


0.7 


2.2 


6.2 


0.5 


1 to 3.4 


From 4 to 6 weeks 


8.6 


0.6 


2.0 


5.6 


0.4 


1 to 3.4 


From 6 to 8 weeks . 


7.4 


0.5 


1.6 


4.9 


0.4 


1 to 3 . 7 


From 8 to 10 weeks . 


6.4 


0.5 


1.2 


4.4 


0.3 


1 to 4.3 


From 10 to 12 weeks 


. 5.4 


0.4 


1.0 


3.7 


0.3 


1 to 4.4 



"As an example of a day's ration which would correspond 
to the requirements of the standard given for young chicks 
during the second week, the following is stated: Four pounds 
of cracked wheat, 2 pounds of granulated oat meal, 3 pounds 
of corn meal, § pound each of wheat middlings, buckwheat 
middlings, ground oats and old-process linseed meal, 2\ 
pounds of animal meal, and 2f pounds of young green alfalfa. 

1 Jordan's Feeding of Animals. 



364 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

This would feed from eight hundred to a thousand chicks of 
this age." 

In practice it is not always practicable to vary the ration 
from week to week with the exactitude pointed out in the 
standard. The needs of the chick govern its appetite very 
largely, and if offered a variety of feeds it may be depended on 
to balance its own ration with fair accuracy. 

Laying Standard. — " It is a physiological axiom that protein 
is a cell stimulant." 1 It is to be expected therefore that grow- 
ing, chicks and laying hens need considerably more digestible 
protein than the minimum that will barely maintain them. 
Because of the large amount of ash required for the manu- 
facture of egg shell, the proportion of ash is also noticeably 
increased. The amounts and proportions of the nutrients for 
hens in full laying as computed by W. P. Wheeler 2 are given 
in Table XLI: 

Table XLI. — Digestible Nutrients Required per Day for Each 
100 Pounds Live Weight of Hens in Full Laying. 

Total dry Carbohy- 

matter. Ash. Protein. drates. Fat. Nutritive 
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds, ratio. 



Hens of 5 to 8 pounds 












weight . . . . 3.30 


.20 


0.65 


2.25 


.20 


1 to 4 . 2 


Hens of 3 to 5 pounds 














.30 


1.00 


3.75 


.35 


1 to 4.6 



W. P. Wheeler 3 has to say concerning these standards: 
"These standards are not absolute and inflexible rules, for 
such would not be justified by a thousand times the number 
of available data. They supply a starting point and do not 
obviate the use of judgment. Because it is found convenient 
on account of different requirements and capabilities to 
divide hens into two groups, it should not be presumed that 
a hen just under five pounds in weight must always have 
one ration, or a hen just over five pounds must always have 
the other." 

The following stated ration is given as an illustration of 
one which would supply the nutrients called for in the 

1 Henry and Morrison, Feeds and Feeding. 

2 Jordan's Feeding of Animals. 3 Ibid. 



THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 365 

standard for laying hens of the larger size: One pound of 
cracked corn, f pound of wheat, f pound of corn meal, \ 
pound each of wheat middlings, buckwheat middlings, and 
animal meal, § pound of fresh bone, and f pound of young 
green alfalfa. 

Computing Rations. — Rations are computed by trial, taking 
the standard feedstuff s as basal and balancing them with such 
feeds as will supply the deficiency of nutrients. By referring to 
Table XLI, it is found that hens in full laying and weighing 
between 3 and 5 pounds should be furnished with 0.3 pound 
ash, 1 pound of digestible protein, 3.75 pounds of digestible 
carbohydrates, and 0.35 pound of digestible fat for every 
100 pounds of live weight. This has a nutritive ratio of 
1 to 4.6. 

In an effort to formulate a ration giving the nutrients 
in proper proportions and amounts, as a trial ration, 3 pounds 
cracked corn, 1 pound wheat, 1 pound cornmeal, 1 pound 
oatmeal, 1 pound bran, and ^ pound meat scrap may be taken. 
Upon reference to the proper Table LIII, it is found that this 
ration supplies the following amounts and proportions of 
the nutrients: Protein, 0.967 pound; carbohydrates, 4.03 
pounds; fat, 0.321 pound, and ash, 0.175 pound, making the 
total dry matter 5.49 pounds. The nutritive ratio is found 
upon calculation to be 1 to 5.1 pounds. 

Upon comparing this with the standard it will be noticed 
that there is a negligible deficiency in total dry matter and 
that the nutritive ratio is a little wide. In order to narrow 
the ration, the amount of meat scrap may be increased to 0.7 
pound. It will then be found that the ration supplies the 
nutrients in approximately proper amounts and proportions, 
save for a deficiency in ash which may be made up by hopper- 
feeding, oyster shell or granulated bone. The vitamins may 
be supplied by an abundance of green feed. 

REQUIREMENTS OF A RATION. 

In the feeding of poultry we may regard the fowl as a 
physiological machine which manufactures eggs and meat. 
The ration is the raw material from which the desired product 



366 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

must be obtained. It must be prepared in accordance with 
the requirements of the desired product and the process of 
manufacture. If best results are to be obtained, other factors 
beside feeding, such as kindness, cleanliness, and the general 
comfort of the fowls must be considered and may be referred 
to as the care of the machine. 

The requirements of a ration with the view of obtaining 
the greatest efficiency in production will be discussed under 
the following topics: (1) amount of feed, (2) feeding condi- 
tions, (3) size of ingredients, (4) palatability and attractive- 
ness, (5) nutritive effect, (6) composition, (7) digestibility, 
(8) variety, (9) adaptation to purpose, (10) effect on product 
and (11) cost. 

Amount of Feed. — It is readily understood that the amount 
of a ration may easily govern not only the amount of eggs 
produced or flesh put on, but may have an effect upon the 
general health of the bird. Eggs are formed and flesh pro- 
duced from the feed fed in excess of that required for the 
mere maintenance of the body. If the amount of feed fed is 
sufficient for maintenance only, no products can be secured. 
If it is less than enough for maintenance, the bird will lose 
flesh and perhaps eventually die of starvation. 

There are, on the other hand, dangers from overfeeding. 
If the ration is extremely palatable, a fowl may eat such an 
amount as to overtax the digestive organs. This may cause 
both a waste of nutrients and those ailments grouped under 
the head of indigestion. 

While the high art of poultry feeding is to so encourage 
and stimulate the appetite of a flock that it will consume 
large amounts of feed, overfeeding is to be avoided with 
care. Of the two feeding errors, overfeeding or underfeeding, 
a little overfeeding is by far the most serious. It tends to 
make the fowls "go stale," depressing the appetite, and 
checking their activity. 

No rule can or should be given as to the exact amount of 
feed to be given any certain class of poultry during a specified 
time. The amount offered should be that which the fowls 
will work industriously to secure until the last bit is gone. 
This applies to growing, laying or fattening stock. The 



THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 367 

proper amount is always just a little less than the fowls 
would like to consume. The ability to judge just what this 
amount is, comes from a study of the flock, and marks the 
skilful feeder. 

It may appear that hopper feeding young stock on range 
or leaving dry mash available for laying stock, forms an 
exception to this rule. It must be noted that in each case 
the supply of the most palatable kinds of feed is limited. 
On range, the bugs and worms are so eagerly sought and at 
such an expenditure of exercise, that there is little danger of 
the chicks overeating of the hopper-fed grains, from the 
stand-points of amount and proportion. Only enough will be 
sought to satisfy the craving that is developed from the 
necessity of balancing up the ration of insects and worms, 
and furnishing energy for abundant exercise. 

In hopper feeding dry mash to laying fowls, the same 
condition prevails. The hens prefer the whole or cracked 
grains to the finely ground mash, and usually eat only as 
much as is necessary to piece out the ration of whole grain, 
or to satisfy the craving for some ingredient of the mash, 
as meat scrap or salt. 

Feeding Conditions. — Rettger, Kirkpatrick and Jones 1 call 
attention to the fact that " with early hatched chicks that 
are confined in small quarters without an opportunity for an 
abundance of green food, fresh air and particularly exercise, 
. . . one-half or less (of the regular proportion) of the 
protein concentrate should be incorporated in the ration 
when the chicks are supplied with all the milk they care to 
consume. In short, chicks grown in small quarters instead of 
on range, and on a 15 or 20 per cent meat ration in combina- 
tion with an abundance of milk are likely to be literally 
grown off their feet, or, in other words, suffer with rickets or 
what is ordinarily called weak legs." Hart, Halpin and 
Steenbock, 2 however, have since shown that certain forms of 
leg-weakness may very possibly be due to a deficiency of 
crude fiber in the ration (see page 370) . 

i Storrs Bulletin No. 77. 

2 Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. xliii, No. 2. 



368 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Size of Ingredients. — The size of each particle of the ration 
must be such that it may be readily eaten by the fowl. 
Poultry generally seem to prefer the larger grains. It has 
been unquestionably proved by experiment and experience, 
however, that a hen will consume more feed and lay more 
eggs if a part of her ration is ground for her. This is perhaps 
owing to the fact that the alimentary tract can digest and 
assimilate more feed than the gizzard can grind. 

It is owing to this, and the fact that protein may usually 
be purchased more cheaply in the ground by-products of the 
grains than in the whole grains, that the custom of feeding 
mashes has grown up. It is possible to overdo the matter of 
giving ground grain, thereby failing to compel enough work 
of the gizzard to keep the digestive tract in good tone. The 
consensus of opinion at present seems to be that the pro- 
portion of two pounds of the whole and cracked grain to one 
of the ground is proper. The amount of mash eaten may be 
controlled by the amount of the more palatable whole and 
cracked grain given. 

It is also customary to use cracked corn in the scratching 
feed for the purpose of making the birds scratch and hunt 
for more particles. Gowell 1 found, however, in a test with 
1000 pullets, lasting from November to April, during which 
half of them received cracked corn and half whole corn, that 
there was very little difference in actual results, the balance 
being slightly in favor of the birds receiving the whole corn. 

Palatability and Attractiveness. — Palatability and high 
digestibility usually go together, as is noted by Brown, 2 
who holds that it " should be emphasized that in incorporating 
grains into poultry rations, the relative palatability should 
be correlated with the digestion coefficients." The amount 
of feed consumed depends quite largely upon its palatability. 
It is a safe rule to use very little or leave out of the ration 
entirely any ingredients that are not palatable where fed 
singly. Rye, cottonseed meal and blood meal are examples 
of unpalatable feeds. Jeffrey 3 found that pullets ate sparingly 

1 Maine Bulletin No. 144. 

2 Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 56. 

3 North Carolina Bulletin No. 211. 



THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 369 

of a mash containing cottonseed meal and as a result were 
slower in developing and coming into laying, where it fur- 
nished the main source of protein, than when the protein 
was furnished by the more palatable meat scraps. 

Grits are selected by fowls according to their attractiveness, 
those which shine and sparkle most being the ones chosen. 

Nutritive Effect. — The nutritive effect of a feed or ration 
must be considered as well as the amount of the various 
digestive nutrients it contains. Linseed meal is a valuable 
source of vegetable protein, but if fed in a greater proportion 
than 10 per cent of the ration it is likely to be very laxative 
in its effect, or to impart an undesirable greenish cast to 
the color of the egg yolks. Winter rye offers a convenient 
source of early spring greenness, but it must be fed with 
caution at first, as it frequently causes digestive disorders. 

Musty grain or tainted meat is likely to cause difficulty 
in the alimentary tract, which in young stock may be so 
serious as to cause heavy mortality. 

Certain materials, as grit and charcoal, are not properly 
feeds, as they are not fed for the purpose of furnishing any of 
the nutrients. They are spoken of as feeds, however, because 
they are commonly fed to bring about certain nutritive 
effects. The function of the grit is to grind the feed, thereby 
increasing its digestion coefficient, while charcoal acts as an 
absorbent and as a corrective of intestinal disorders. 

One of the most important feed constituents in this con- 
nection is crude fiber. While it has a very limited digestibility, 
a certain proportion is necessary in the ration. Its function 
is to dilute and open up the ration in the crop, gizzard, and 
intestines so that the secretions in these respective organs 
may have an opportunity to act. It serves to keep the intes- 
tine properly distended and aids in preventing constipation. 
If it was possible to feed fowls a ration that was wholly 
digestible, they would very probably die of acute consti- 
pation. 

Hart. Halpin and Steenbock 1 have secured very suggestive 
results in feeding growing chicks in confinement on a synthetic 

1 Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. xliii, No. 2. 
24 



370 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

diet which indicate that there may be a close relation between 
the crude fiber content of the ration and a chick malady 
called leg-weakness (see page 511). The chicks in the 
several lots fed on various diets exhibited this trouble to a 
greater or lesser extent except the lot which was fed a ration 
containing 10 per cent of crude fiber in the form of finely 
ground paper. Just what relation this result bears to practi- 
cal chick feeding it is too early to state. The lots fed were 
small and the number of lots was not large. Further work 
will be awaited with interest. 

Too much crude fiber in a ration is also disastrous. Gowell 1 
reports that hens that had been bedded with oat straw, and 
giving a 60 per cent egg yield, were suddenly reduced to a 
yield of less than 10 per cent by bedding the house down with 
oat hay cured green. The hens ate freely of the finer parts, 
which immediately caused acute digestive disorders. The 
hay was removed at once, but it was twenty days before the 
birds regained their normal production. 

Cochel and Jackson 2 found that rations carrying 3.5 per 
cent of the total weight in crude fiber gave better results 
for laying hens than those with lower or higher percentages. 
Fowls were kept in fairly good condition on a ration carrying 
5 per cent of crude fiber, but showed a decreased egg yield. 
Serious intestinal disorders occurred when a. ration carrying 
over 5 per cent was fed. 

They further found that fowls did not seem to make 
any appreciable use of coarse floor litter to supply a defi-' 
ciency in the fiber content of a ration; that the amount of 
succulence consumed was governed to some extent by the 
proportion of crude fiber in a ration, and that fowls with 
unlimited alfalfa or bran will make up rations carrying 
approximately 3.5 per cent of crude fiber. 

Composition. — If the best results are to be obtained from 
feeding, the ration must be complete and properly balanced. 
If the ration is improperly balanced with regard to the pro- 
portions of the nutrients, the fowl is compelled to consume 
a larger amount of one nutrient to secure the necessary 

1 Maine Bulletin No. 144. " Pennsylvania Bulletin, No. 120. 



THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 371 

amount of others. So, in an extremely wide ration, a fowl 
is compelled to consume more carbohydrates than its body 
requires in order that it may obtain the vital amountsof protein. 

Securing the proper composition not only refers to the 
proper nutritive ratio, regarding the nitrogenous and non- 
nitrogenous nutrients, but also the completeness and proper 
balance between grain, animal food, succulence, ash, grit, 
charcoal, bone or any other material that may be fed. A 
ration is balanced when it contains all the nutrients in right 
proportions. It is complete when it contains, in addition to 
the nutrients, every material that may produce a desirable 
nutritive effect. 

Digestibility. — The digestibility of feeds has been fully 
treated elsewhere in another connection. In feeding practice 
it is necessary to fully appreciate its importance in relation 
to cost, the need of guarding against too much bulk on the 
one hand and too great concentration on the other. A ration 
composed wholly of mangel beets (90 per cent water) and 
chopped oat straw might have a nutritive ratio that was 
approximately correct, but it would be so bulky and so 
lacking in available nutrients that enough energy could not 
be secured from it to carry on the work of digestion. 

On the other hand, a ration composed entirely of corn 
and meat scraps would contain so small an amount of 
bulky material that the intestines would not be sufficiently 
distended to allow for thorough digestion and prevent 
constipation. 

Between two feeds having the same composition and cost- 
ing the same, the one having the highest digestion coefficient 
is the more profitable to feed. While the exact situation is 
not met in actual practice, the principle involved is met and 
must constantly be considered. 

Variety. — Variety is one of the spring conditions responsible 
for the increased production of that season. There is not only 
grain, animal feed, and green feed in abundance, but there are 
very many kinds of each. Aside from the cultivated grains, 
there are many seeds from the weeds and grasses, there are 
hundreds of kinds of insects and worms and nearly as many 
different kinds of tender greenness. 



372 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

In formulating the ration, not one, but several kinds of 
both whole and ground grains and as many sorts of animal 
food and greenness should be furnished as possible. Variety 
stimulates the appetite and offers an opportunity for the 
fowl to exercise some choice in the selection of the ration. 
It also makes likely a supply of the vitamins so far recognized 
and perhaps others not yet discovered. 

Philips 1 reports observations upon the feeding habits of 
hens, wherein he found in feeding a grain ration containing 
corn, oats, and wheat, that certain hens preferred corn to the 
exclusion of the other grains, others preferred wheat, while 
still others showed a marked preference for oats. If any one 
of the grains had been fed to the exclusion of the others, 
even though properly balanced with a mash, the birds would 
not have been quite satisfied and production would probably 
have been lessened. 

Adaptation to Purpose. — There is usually one of four pro- 
ductive purposes in view in feeding. These are (1) laying, 
(2) fattening, (3) growing, and (4) breeding. In addition 
to these, there are the factors of age, class, and species 
to consider. The most characteristic differences between 
rations formulated for these respective purposes are as 
follows: An egg ration is composed, in addition to grit, shell, 
charcoal, bone and water, which are before the fowls at all 
times for all purposes except fattening, of whole or cracked 
grains and mash mixtures. A laying ration should have a 
nutritive ratio between 1 to 4 and 1 to 5, the lighter hens 
requiring a proportion coming nearer to the latter and 
heavier hens coming nearer to the former ratio. 

A fattening ration is usually composed entirely of finely 
ground grains or grain by-products, mixed with buttermilk 
or skim milk to a consistency of a porridge. Wheeler 2 suggests 
a nutritive ratio of 1 to 8 as proper for a fattening ration for 
mature fowls. Bittenbender and Lippincott 3 found a ratio 
of 1 to 6.3 gave better gains than any narrower ratio, while 
Lee 4 reports that in commercial establishments and packing 

1 Kansas Bulletin No. 164. 2 Jordan's Feeding of Animals. 

3 Unpublished data, Iowa State College. 

4 Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 146. 



THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 373 

plants where fattening is carried on on a large scale, rations 
having a nutritive ratio of 1 to 6.2 gave the best results. In 
both cases, however, the birds were young and still growing. 

The fattening ration is made up entirely of ground grains 
and milk, because it is desirable that the ration be of con- 
dition consistency and palatability to be consumed, digested, 
and assimilated rapidly and in large quantities. This is be- 
cause the fattening period rarely lasts over three weeks, and 
usually not over two. 

A growing ration for young chicks is similar to a laying 
ration, save that the ingredients are smaller and the pro- 
portion of both ash and protein is greater. 

The breeding ration is frequently exactly the same as the 
laying ration. Many poultry men, however, hold the view 
that the fertility of eggs and the vitality of offspring are 
injured by encouraging the laying of large numbers of eggs 
by feeding a narrow ration, and prefer to widen it somewhat 
for feeding breeding birds. This view appears to be borne 
out by experimental evidence. Others feed only whole grain, 
so that the birds will be kept in good trim by plenty of 
internal exercise in grinding the grains, as well as by the 
usual exercise in scratching for them. 

Effect on Product. — Certain feeds have an undesirable 
effect on the flavor of the eggs and flesh of fowls, that are at 
the same time nutritious, palatable, and healthful. Onions, 
rape, turnips and fish scrap, if fed in excess, impart a strong 
taste to eggs, but otherwise are excellent feed. 

Green feed and yellow corn help to give the rich golden- 
yellow color which is so desirable in the yolk, while excessive 
amounts of linseed meal impart a green color to the yolks. 
Beets give the yolks a pale color. Waite 1 found that yellow 
corn, when composing three-sevenths of a ration, gave a very 
deep yellow to the yolk of the resulting eggs. When it formed 
three-elevenths of the ration, it gave a noticeable yellow tint, 
but not as rich a yellow as is desired. 

Wheat, when forming the same proportions as above, gave 
no yellow color to the egg yolks, and white corn gave no 

1 Maryland Bulletin No. 157. 



374 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

better results. The balance of the ration was in each case 
the same. 

In fattening experiments, Bittenbender and Lippincott 1 
found that when meat scraps formed 25 per cent of the finely 
ground portion of a fattening ration, it imparted a distinctly 
strong flavor to the flesh of the fowls, as compared with 
birds fattened on oat flour and gluten feed. 

It is because of the effect of their food that wild ducks 
have the characteristic "gamey" flavor that is conspicuously 
absent in the same species when domesticated. 

Bushnell and Maurer 2 found that there was a marked in- 
crease in the bacterial infection of eggs laid by hens when 
fed a wet mash, as compared with a dry mash. 

Fig. 174 




Showing effect on the egg yolk of feeding a fat stain (Sudan III) 
to laying hens. 

Cost. — A very important factor in any ration is its cost. 
The best ration, all things considered, is the one which gives 
the greatest economic returns. This does not mean either the 
greatest returns or the cheapest ration. The greatest returns 
might be obtained only from a ration that cost more than the 
product is worth, and the cheapest ration might result in 
such limited production that it would be as unprofitable 
as the most expensive ration. To find the most profitable 
means between these two unprofitable extremes is the nice 
problem which confronts every practical feeder. 

It is customary to rate feeds on the basis of their digestible 
protein content, because protein is an essential nutrient for 

1 Unpublished data, Iowa State College. 

2 Unpublished data, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. 



THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 375 

Table XLII. — Feed Cost of a Dozen Eggs at Varying Prices 
of Feeds. 

Price per Pounds of feed Cost per 

pound of consumed per dozen dozen 

feed. eggs produced. eggs. 

fG.O 1 $0.06 

$0.010 { 7.5 2 0.075 

9.0^ 0.09 

f 6. 0.09 

0.015 ... 47.5 0.1125 

[9.0 0.135 

f 6.0 0.12 

0.020 -{7.5 0.15 

[9.0 0.18 

(6.0 0.15 

\ 7.5 0.1875 

9.0 0.225 

6.0 0.18 

^7.5 0.225 

9.0 0.27 

6.0 0.21 

^7.5 0.2625 

9.0 0.315 

6.0 0.24 

i 7.5 0.30 

9.0 0.36 

(6.0 0.27 

0.045 ... . . \ 7.5 0.3375 

[9.0 0.405 

(6.0 0.30 

0.050 . . i 7.5 0.375 

9.0 0.45 

6.0 0.33 

. . { 7.5 0.4125 

9.0 0.495 

(6.0 0.36 

•j 7.5 0.45 

9.0 0.54 

1 The amount of feed necessary to produce one dozen eggs by Leghorns 
whose average normal production was 155.5 eggs. 

2 The amount of feed necessary to produce one dozen eggs by American 
breeds whose average production was about 142 eggs. 

3 The amount of feed necessary to produce one dozen eggs on commercial 
farms whose stock was about 94 per cent Leghorns and whose average 
production was 109 eggs. 



376 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

all rations and is the most expensive. This classification 
holds -only to a limited extent on the market. The feeds 
containing the most digestible protein are ordinarily com- 
paratively high in price, but the prices are not always in 
exact proportion to the protein content. Therefore protein 
may be cheaper from one source than from another. 

It frequently becomes advisable in practice to vary the 
nutritive ratio of a ration in order to use larger amounts of 
a cheap feed. While this may be done without serious results, 
care should be taken that too great a deviation is not made 
from the accepted ratio, and a return to the correct ratio 
should be made as soon as the prices of feeds will permit. 

The feed cost of a dozen eggs with feed at varying prices 
is shown in Table XLII, page 375. This table was calculated 
from the data of Kirkpatrick and Card 1 and of App, Waller 
and Lewis' 2 (see page 380) . 

1 Storrs Bulletin, No. 82. 

2 New Jersey Bulletin, No. 329. 



CHAPTER X. 
FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES. 



FEEDING PRACTICE. 

Basis of Feeding Practice. — There is no other class of live 
stock that surpasses poultry in the difficulty of successful 
feeding. With the larger animals, and particularly the 
dairy cow, with which the laying hen is most nearly com- 
parable, the individual may be dealt with, and individual 
tastes and peculiarities catered to. 

Fig. 175 




The foundation of an efficient feeding practice is a uniform flock, 
of Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



(Courtesy 



With poultry, the value of the product of a single indi- 
vidual is not sufficient to warrant individual care and atten- 
tion. The best that can be done is to build up feeding 
practices that meet the requirements of the average hen. 

(377) 



378 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

In order to make such practices really efficient, however, 
it is necessary to have every hen in the flock approximate 
fairly closely the average hen. It means little to feed the 
average hen intelligently if the extremes on either side of the 
average vary from the Mediterranean to the Asiatic type, 
as is frequently the case in mongrel flocks. The first step 
toward making a rational and efficient feeding practice 
possible is building the foundation for a uniform flock b,y 
grading or by establishing a pure-bred flock. 

The Feeding Problem. — "Skill in feeding is the art of 
stimulating the appetite." The factors which enter into 
the problem of inciting the fowls to a large consumption 
of feed include (1) variety, and (2) palatability which have 
received a full discussion elsewhere. The further factors 
which have to do directly with feeding practice are (3) 
regularity, (4) compelling of exercise, and (5) gauging the 
amount to be fed. 

Regularity.— Fowls of all sorts are highly responsive to 
regularity in feeding. Where regular feeding hours are kept 
the birds will usually congregate at the place of feeding 
shortly before feeding time and wait quietly for the appear- 
ance of the feeder. In the event of his non-appearance at 
the usual time the birds begin to become irritated and 
fretful. Such a condition long continued or occurring with 
frequency, in common with all sources of discomfort, causes 
a more or less noticeable lessening in the consumption of 
feed and a corresponding loss in production. 

Exercise. — Good feeding practice requires the encourage- 
ment of a generous amount of vigorous exercise as an ac- 
companiment of the ration for all purposes save maintenance 
and fattening. As feeding for a bare maintenance is seldom 
desirable in practice it may be said that the compelling of 
exercise is a part of the feeding routine with all classes of 
stock except that which is being fattened. 

Stock on range during the spring and summer will need 
little encouragement in this line. The eager desire for insects, 
worms, and tender greenness will keep any but the heaviest 
and most inactive breeds hunting and scratching quite 
constantly. 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 379 

During the winter, or with stock that is somewhat closely 
confined it is usually necessary to compel exercise by forcing 
the fowls to scratch for all whole or cracked grain in a deep 
litter of straw or some similar material. Plenty of exercise 
is distinctly a spring condition and should be required in 
abundance save in hot weather, if the digestive and repro- 
ductive organs are to be kept in good tone. 

The Amount of Feed. — While ability to so stimulate the 
appetite that birds of all classes will consume large 
amounts of feed with relish is the feeder's greatest virtue, 
overfeeding is his greatest failing. Nothing will more 
quickly defeat the very purpose of feeding, in contrast 
to allowing the fowls to feed themselves, than habitually 
offering more feed than the fowls are keen to consume. 
The difference between "just enough" and "a little too 
much" is a cloyed appetite and a listlessness that foretells 
a limited performance at the nest or small gains in the crate. 

The amount of feed offered to any class of birds, for 
whatever purpose, must be governed by the judgment of 
the feeder, based on the size and disposition of the fowls 
and the amount of feed they are picking up about the farm. 

The fact should not be overlooked that the crop capacity 
of the hen is insufficient to supply through the long winter 
nights the feed necessary for heavy egg production. It is 
perfectly possible to overfeed during the day and underfeed 
during the night. Both practices limit production. The 
development of the use of lights to lengthen the feeding day 
and shorten the night is overcoming the latter difficulty but 
the former must still depend upon the skill and judgment of 
the feeder. 

As a basis for estimating production costs or for purchasing 
feeds the following records will be found useful. 

Gowell reports that the amount of feed consumed per hen 
in twelve months by a flock of Barred Plymouth Rocks 
averaging 144 eggs each was: 

Grain and mash 90.0 pounds 

Oyster shell 4.0 

Dry cracked bone 2.4 

Grit 2.0 

Charcoal . 2.4 

Clover 10.0 



380 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

He further reports that 2000 pullets of the same breed 
were raised to laying age with an average consumption of: 

28 pounds of grain and mash 
f " granulated bone 

2 " oyster shell 

2£ " grit 

2 " charcoal 

At the third annual international egg-laying contest 
Kirkpatrick and Card 1 found that the average feed consump- 
tion of 380 Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, and Wyan- 
dotte females for one year, when the average egg production 
was a trifle under 142 eggs, was 88.34 pounds of grain and 
mash. On this basis it took 7.5 pounds of feed to produce a 
dozen eggs. During the same period the average con- 
sumption of 330 Leghorn females whose average production 
was 155.5 eggs, was 76.8 pounds of grain and mash, the 
amount of feed per dozen eggs being approximately 6 
pounds. 

App, Waller and Lewis 2 found that on commercial poultry 
farms in New Jersey, where Leghorns composed 94.3 per 
cent of the stock and the average annual production was 109 
eggs, the average annual feed consumption, not including 
green feed, was 82.97 pounds per head. This approximates 
9 pounds of feed for each dozen eggs produced. The 
amount of feed necessary for the production of a dozen eggs 
varies with the class of stock and the rate of production. 

Wet and Dry Feeding. — The relative merits of wetting 
all or a part of the feed and of feeding it all dry are points 
upon which skilled poultrymen are not agreed. The experi- 
mental evidence at hand leans rather favorably toward 
dry feeding (see page 324) with regard to both results and 
labor, except under conditions hereinafter mentioned. 

Hopper-feeding Dry Mash. — One of the great advantages 
of dry mash is that it may be hopper fed. Aside from the 
lessening of labor there is a great advantage in the avoidance 
of mobbing which always occurs when a wet mash is fed in a 
tray or trough. The weaker and more timid hens are likely 

1 Storrs Bulletin No. 82 

2 New Jersey Bulletin, No. 329 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 381 

to be abused or crowded out so that they fail to get their 
share and frequently go hungry, while the more vigorous 
fowls gorge themselves. Where the mash is hopper fed there 
is opportunity for all birds to eat all they desire. At the 
same time there is not the same likelihood of overeating 
on the part of some individuals, found with wet-mash 
feeding, because of the fact that the fowls prefer the whole 
grain of the scratching ration and will eat only as much 
of the dry mash as they need to satisfy their appetite. 
This affords a basis of control of the amount of dry mash 
consumed that is fully as effective as the daily measuring 
out of the portion of the wet mash to be offered. 

Wet-mash Feeding. — Many poultrymen prefer moistening 
the mash with water to feeding it dry. This practice is not 
to be recommended except under circumstances that warrant 
a considerable increase in labor for small and doubtful 
increase in production. Apparently the only advantage 
in wetting mash comes by increasing its palatability. The 
resulting increase in production is not ordinarily commen- 
surate with the labor involved in wetting up the feed 
at each feeding, spreading it upon the feeding trays, and 
cleaning the trays from time to time in warm weather. 

As pointed out previously (see page 374), wet mash in- 
creases the number of infected eggs when fed to laying hens, 
and is generally supposed to predispose the stock to bowel 
trouble somewhat. 

Mairs 1 found that chicks under one pound in weight 
seemed to grow faster on a wet mash, while those weighing 
a pound and a half or more made faster growth on dry feed. 
The loss of chicks, however, was much greater among those 
fed wet mash than among those receiving only dry feed, 
even when weighing less than one pound. 

Lewis 2 found that for little chicks a wet-mash system of 
feeding produced a greater gain in weight than a ration that 
was wholly dry. This gain, however, was more than offset 
by the increased mortality of the chicks fed the wet mash. 

Where wet mash is fed for any purpose except fattening, 

1 Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 87. 

2 New Jersey Experiment Station, Thirty-second Annual Report. 



382 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

it should be moistened only enough to render it crumbly. 
Sloppiness should be consistently avoided. 

Feeding Little Chicks.— Chicks should not be fed lor from 
thirty-six to forty-eight hours after hatching. The exact 
time will be determined by the chicks calling so lustily as 
to leave no uncertainty about their being hungry. 

It has been found that when feeding is somewhat delayed 
the yolk material which is taken into the body just prior 
to hatching is more quickly and satisfactorily absorbed. 
It is the fact that the yolk furnishes an ample supply of 
h\'A for two l»> three days after batching that makes possible 
the practice of shipping baby chicks. Tongl (as reported 
by Lusk 1 ) found that "IS per cent of the original energy 
in the egg is largely found in the abdomen of the chick" 
and is absorbed by the intestine during the early days of life. 
Before gi\ r ing any grains the chicks should be provided with 

clean fresh water that is not too cold, bone meal, and clean 
sand or very line grit. Grit, bone, and charcoal should be 
before them at all times thereafter. 

When regular feeding begins, frequency of feeding is an 
essential of good practice. This is particularly true in the 
ease of artificially brooded chicks which do not have the 
hen to hunt up their Iced for them bit by bit and keep them 
interested. Little and often should be the rule, with periods 
of not longer than three hours elapsing between feeds. 

Successful poultrymen differ as to the advisability of 
feeding moistened i'wA to chicks, as well as to laying hens, 
though the number that prefer the dry feeds seems to be 
increasing. 

"A soft feed of dried bread-crumbs soaked in milk is 
very nourishing and supplies all the elements essential to 
growth, but is open to the criticism of being softer than the 
food supplied by nature. A mixture of hard-boiled egg 
chopped line, shell and all, and mixed with four to six times 
its bulk of dried crumbs or rolled oats (one egg to UK) chicks) 
seems a little nearer to the natural diet of bugs and seeds. 

1 SoionCQ of Nutrition. 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 



383 



This can be supplemented by milk to drink by those who 
can obtain i(. ;ii. ;i suitable price." 1 

As soon as possible the chicks should be gotten to scratch- 
ing for cracked grains, and exercise encouraged in every 
possible way. At, limes when I hey appear a little listless 
t hey should be interested and livened up by supplying some- 
thing thai they like very much and will scrap over. Angle 

worm:, are I he best thing for I his purpose, but arc not. 

always easily available. Long pieces <>l" onion made by slic- 

Fia. L76 




\ barrel w ■ r l ■ ,-i Blightlj open faucol allowing .'i tiny stream to llow i'h 
the nexl besl thing to a flowing spring, (Courtesy of Purdue Agricultural 

I ,\ i iei iiimii! Si :ii ion.) 



ing the onions, separating and cutting the rings, will serve 
nearly as well after the chick,- become accustomed to it. 
The skilled feeder is one who so feeds his chicks that they 
arc constantly active and busy. Overfeeding or infrequent 
feeding is likely to result in listlessness or dumpishness on 
the part of the entire (lock, which should be recognized at 
once as a danger signal and some means of livening them up 
resorted to. 

1 Jaffa, California Bulletin No. 184. 



384 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Chick Feeds Must be Sweet. — In feeding little chicks it is 
absolutely essential that the grains be perfectly free from 
mould or must and the meat scraps from taint. So important 
is this in newly hatched chicks that poultrymen frequently 
go to the expense of purchasing kiln-dried grain in order that 
they may be sure that it has not heated or moulded. A 
feeder should always take the precaution to bury the nose 
in a double handful of any grain intended for newly hatched 
youngsters in an effort to detect the slightest suggestion 
of sourness or mustiness. Meat scraps should also be care- 
fully scrutinized for taint (see page 343). Only those feeds 
which are perfectly sweet may be fed without grave danger 
of a high death rate. 

Chick Rations. — Philips 1 reports excellent results from the 
ollowing ration for chicks: 

Grain. Mash. 

6 pounds cracked corn (sifted) 2 pounds bran 
4 pounds cracked wheat 2 pounds shorts 

2 pounds "steel cut" oats ^ pound charcoal 

All of the sour milk or buttermilk 
the chicks will drink. 
All the green feed the chicks will consume. Grit and granulated 
bone before them all the time. 

If milk is not available, 2\ pounds of fine meat scrap must 
be added to the mash. The milk, however, is very much 
preferred. 

For chicks, as for old stock of whatever class, the drinking 
water should be plentiful, kept fresh and always contain 
enough permanganate of potassium to give it a rich wine 
color. The reason for doing the latter with all classes of 
stock is that it helps to keep in check intestinal parasites 
of various sorts, and is an excellent means of preventing the 
spread of such diseases as effect the nasal cavities, mouth 
and intestinal tract, through the drinking water. 

The grain is fed in a litter from the first and the mash 
supplied in a suitable hopper when the birds are five to 
seven days old. If it is desirable to force the chicks rapidly, 
the proportion of mash may be increased. 

1 Purdue Extension Leaflet, No. 72. 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 



385 



Jaffa 1 recommends as a chick feed a mixture made up of 
the following material cracked or crushed until it is the size 
of a millet: 



20 parts wheat 
15 parts oats 
5 parts millet 
2 parts rice 



6 parts corn 
10 parts grit 
5 parts charcoal 
5 parts bone meal 




Chickens relish sour milk and thrive on it. (Courtesy of Purdue Agricultural 
Experiment Station.) 

"The grit and charcoal are added to the chick feed, as 
the babies cannot at first be depended upon to visit the 
grit trough regularly, but the trough is placed in the run 
to teach them to acquire the habit for the future. 

"Toward the end of the second week it will be well to add 
a little cracked wheat and steel-cut oats to the above mix- 
ture, gradually increasing the amount until it finally replaces 
the chick feed. Then begin gradually to add whole wheat 
to the cracked until at the end of the sixth or seventh week 



1 California Bulletin No. 164. 



25 



386 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

they are having only whole wheat and cracked corn. The 
steel-cut oats are too expensive for long use and the unprepared 
article is not safe on account of the husks. 

"A mash may be used about. the eighth to the tenth day. 
This may be fed dry or wet. By 'wet' is never meant a 
sloppy mass, but one which is jus: sufficiently moistened to 
make it adhere in lumps or appear crumbly. The difference 
of opinion in regard to the advantages of these two mashes 
may be due to the fact that a careless feeder can produce 
bad results in his chicks by cramming them with mash 
that is soft and sloppy and handled with difficulty by the 
digestive apparatus. If moistened with skim milk the mash 
will be more palatable as well as more nourishing. 

Dhe mash can be made from various materials,, and the 
two presented below are offered as samples of many that may 
be equally good: 

I. II. 

3 parts bran 4 parts bran 

- v^rts shorts 2 parts alfalfa meal 

1 part coarse corn meal 1 part corn meal 

1 part oat meal J part meat meal 

J part meat meal i part bone meal 

i part bone meal ^ part charcoal 
i part charcoal 

"One teaspoonful of salt should be added to each couple 

gallons of this mixture. The meat meal and alfalfa meal 
should be sifted so that no coarse particles remain. 

'"The above mixtures are suited to chicks that are from 
ten days to six weeks old. From this time to about the 
tenth week the meat meal should be gradually increased 
from one-quarter part to one-half part. From the tenth 
to fourteenth week another gradual increase should bring 
the meat meal up to one part in the above formula, which 
would then be the same as a formula for laying hens. 

"The bone meal should also be increased, but more 
gradually, so that when the meat meal reaches one part the 
bone meal amounts to one-half p:v 

Ivirkpatrick 1 recommend the following: ' 0' 

No. 96. 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 387 

removing (the chicks) from the incubator take each chick 
individually and dip its beak into sour milk in order to make 
sure that milk is the first food taken into its system. Be 
sure that the chick swallows two or three times before passing 
it on to the box or basket in which it is to be carried to the 
brooder. 

"The first daj *s ration should consist of fine chick Feed in 
which has been mixed a large proportion of fine grit. It maj 
be even well to give clear grit forthefirst feed. rYfter two or 
three days the proportion of grit may be reduced and after 
tin- first week it ma\ be hopper fed it desired, 

"Beginning with the third daj wheat bran should be con- 
stantly available. During the second week feed grain three 
or lour times daily and substitute chick mash for the wheat 
bran. Make all changes of feed gradually." Thefollowing 

is the ration. 

Cracked wheat 15 pounds Whoat bran . 20 pounds 

Fine cracked corn IS Corn meal . . . 10 

Pinhoad oats it' " Sifted ground oats, LO 

Broken rioe .'* " I iow grade flour .10 

Rneoharcoal , , - " Meat and fish scrap LO 

\u abundance of green feed. 

When the chicks arc six weeks of age this ration is gradually 
replaced by a regular laying ration as follows: 

Grain Mash 

Cracked corn 200 pounds Cora meal , too pounds 

\\ heal . . . 200 " \\ heat bran LOO 

Ground oats LOO 

Middlings . . 100 

Meal or fish scrap LOO 

Schoppe 1 recommends as a first food a mixture of 'J parts 
whoat bran and 1 part rolled oats fed in shallow tin pans, 
the bottoms o\' which haw 1 been sprinkled with fine chick 
grit. The chicks are allowed to pick at this for about ton 
minutes and then it is removed. For the first few days they 
are fed five times a day, very sparingly. During the first 
week the mash is gradually changed until it contains equal 
parts o( bran and rolled oats. 

1 Montana Agricultural College, in Poultry Life, March, 1913. 



388 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

On the second day a little fine-cracked grain is sprinkled 
into the litter. This may be made up as follows: 

Parts by weight. 

Fine-cracked wheat 15 

Pinhead oats 10 

Fine-screened cracked corn 15 

Fine-cracked peas 3 

Broken rice 2 

Chick grit (limestone) . 5 

Fine charcoal (chick size) 2 

This grain mixture should be fed during the first three 
weeks, then gradually changed during the fourth week so 
that at the end of the week it will contain : 

Parts by weight 

Cracked corn 4 

Cracked wheat . 2 

Pinhead oats 1 

The grains are cracked somewhat coarser than for the 
chick feed. This grain mixture is fed for the remainder of 
the summer. 

During the second week the mash should contain a little 
corn meal, which is gradually increased, and later animal 
meal and Daisy flour are added, so that at the end of the 
second week it contains: 

Parts by weight 

Bran 1 

Corn meal or barley meal 1? 

Rolled oats 1 

Daisy flour (or any low-grade flour) \ 

Beef scrap (fine) \ 

The chicks should be fed this about four times a day. 

During the third week this mash is gradually changed 
by dropping out the rolled oats and adding gluten meal 
and increasing the other ingredients until it contains: 

Parts by weight. 

Bran 2 

Corn meal or barley meal 3 

Gluten 1 

Daisy flour (or any low-grade flour) 1 

Beef scrap 1 

This mash is fed until the chicks are six to eight weeks 
old. It is kept in the hopper before the birds all the time, 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 389 

and they also have access to ground oats, fed from the 
hopper or flats. 

After the eighth week the composition of the mash is 
varied to suit the needs of the birds, as indicated by their 
stage of development. This change is generally made by 
decreasing the proportion of gluten, as indicated: 

Parts by weight. 

Bran 10 

Corn meal or barley meal 15 

Gluten 2\ 

Daisy flour (or any low-grade flour) 5 

Beef scrap 5 

The mash is always fed dry. 

During the first three weeks the tops of sprouted oats 
cut fine are furnished for succulence and from three weeks 
on rape or clover. Whenever the chicks show signs of 
diarrhea they are given some boiled rice at once and until 
the trouble disappears. As the result of somewhat extended 
feeding experiments Rice and Nixon 1 recommend the fol- 
lowing rations and methods of feeding: 

The Ration The Method 

Mixture No. 1. One to Five Days. 

8 pounds rolled oats. Mixture No. 1, moistened with sour 

8 pounds bread-crumbs or skimmed milk, fed five times a day; 

cracker waste. Mixture No. 2 in shallow tray containing 

2 pounds sifted meat scrap a little of No. 3 (dry) always before 

(best grade). chicks. Shredded green food and fine 

1 pound bone meal. grit and charcoal scattered over food. 

Mixture No. 2. Five Days to Two Weeks. 

3 pounds wheat (cracked). No. 2 in light litter twice a day; No. 3 

2 pounds cracked corn (fine) moistened with sour skimmed milk, fed 
1 pound pinhead oatmeal three times a day; No. 3 (dry) always 

available. 

Mixture No. 3. Two to Four Weeks. 

3 pounds wheat bran. As above, except that the moist mash is 
3 pounds corn meal. given twice a day. 

3 pounds wheat middlings. 
3 pounds meat scrap (best 

grade) . 
1 pound bone meal. 

1 Cornell Bulletin No. 327. 



390 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

The Ration The Method 

Four to Six Weeks (until Chicks are on 
Mixture No. 4. Range). 

3 pounds wheat (whole). Reduce meals of moist mash to one a day; 

2 pounds cracked corn. Mixture No. 4 in litter twice a day; dry 
1 pound hulled oats. mash always available. 

Mixture No. 5. Six Weeks to Maturity. 

3 pounds wheat. No. 3 and No. 5 hopper fed. One meal a 
3 pounds cracked corn. day of moist mash if it is desired to 

hasten development. 

Further Directions. 

1. Provide fine grit, charcoal, shell, and bone from the start. 

2. Give grass range or plenty of green food. 

3. Have fresh, clean water always available. 

4. Feed only sweet, wholesome foods. 

5. Avoid damp and soiled litter. 

6. Test all meat scrap before feeding. 

7. Keep chickens active by allowing them to become hungry 

once daily. 

8. Feed moist mash sparingly. 

9. Keep dry mash always before the chicks. 

Feeding Broilers. — When the young males are to be dis- 
posed of as broilers they are frequently forced a little more 
rapidly than the pullets or males intended for breeding 
purposes. The feeding of broilers may for convenience 
be divided into three periods: (1) growing, (2) forcing, and 
(3) fattening. 

The growing period is generally about four weeks, its 
length varying somewhat with the breed, the time of hatch- 
ing, and the size at which it is desirable to market them. 
The early-maturing breeds are usually forced somewhat 
earlier than the slower-growing kind. 

During this growing period a regular growing ration is 
fed. It should be continued until the chicks have become 
well established physically and are well past the danger of 
the ordinary little chick ills. 

The length of the forcing period is also variable and for 
the same reasons as the first period. 

The forcing ration usually differs from the growing ration 
for chicks of the same age by carrying a larger proportion 
of protein which may be accomplished, as Philips suggests 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 391 

(see page 384), by increasing the proportion of ground 
feed. The chicks must be watched carefully for any indica- 
tion of digestive disorders which sometimes arise when the 
proportion of protein or of mash is made too great. If 
possible the increase in protein should be brought about by 
adding cottage cheese to the ration rather than by increasing 
the meat scraps. By doing this the ration may be made 
narrower without upsetting the digestion, than may usually 
be done with the aid of meat scraps. 

During the fattening period the method and rations 
described under milk feeding may be used (see page 401). 
The fattening period for broilers is usually not longer than 
twelve days and is frequently limited to eight. The time 
of feeding depends somewhat upon how long the chicks 
' 'stand up' ' to the fattening ration without losing their appetite . 

Where the broilers are not intended for private trade 
they should not be milk-fed but penned up and corn-fed 
for a period of two to three weeks. They will then be in 
good shape for the milk feeding at the packing house. 

Developing Pullets. — It is not a wise practice to force 
pullets intended for egg production or breeding. In order 
to have them mature for winter laying they should be 
hatched early enough to allow them to reach their proper 
development normally and without forcing. 

Any deviation from normal development tends to lessen 
vitality and reproductive powers. If a pullet is to stand 
up under the strain of being forced for heavy egg production 
after she begins to lay, or to produce vigorous offspring 
if she is a breeder, she should have the benefit of a normal 
development prior to that time. Mairs 1 found that chicks 
forced when young did not make as rapid growth as they 
approached maturity as those fed a more moderate ration. 

When the cockerels are taken out for forcing and finishing, 
the pullets should be moved to a grassy range where they 
can develop unmolested by male birds. The ration should 
be one to promote health, and calculated to produce sub- 
stantial growth rather than particularly quick growth. 

1 Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 87. 



392 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

It may be entirely honper fed, though most feeders will 
prefer to feed out of hand at least once a day in order to 
keep in touch with the progress of the stock. 

The pullets should be left on range until they are beginning 
to lay, when they should be moved into their permanent 
laying quarters. 

Developing Breeding Males. — The same principles and 
practices involved in developing pullets apply to breeding 
males. They should be kept separate from the pullets from 
the time they begin to show marked secondary sexual 
characteristics. The cockerels develop sexually earlier 
than the pullets do, and, unless they are separated, will 
worry the pullets to a degree that will seriously interfere 
with the proper development of the latter. 

Routine in Feeding Layers Without Lights.— The details of 
feeding practice, like the constituents of a ration, vary with 
feeders and conditions. As there is no one best ration, so 
there is no feeding routine for chickens that is outstanding 
in its excellence. The following practice, which has proved 
successful in a large number of cases where lights were not 
used to lengthen the feeding day, is given as being suggestive 
of what a good routine may be : 

Give a light feed of grain, soon after the birds leave the 
perch in the morning. This should be scattered in a deep 
litter of straw to every part of the pen so that the birds will 
be compelled to scratch vigorously for some hours in order to 
search it all out. Fresh water should be supplied in the 
morning. 

At noon as much succulence as the birds will clean up in 
twenty minutes to half an hour should be supplied. Fresh 
water should be given and the dry mash hopper opened. 

Two to three hours before the birds go to roost they should 
be given a full feed of grain thrown in the litter. It is essential 
to the best results that the birds go to roost with full crops, 
and this feeding should not be stinted. An examination 
of the crops of the birds should now and then be made after 
they are on the perch to ascertain whether they are well 
filled. 

It is better to overdo the matter of evening feeding a 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 393 

little than to slight it. If a little grain is left in the litter 
it will be eagerly scratched out in the morning. Great 
care should be taken, however, to so feed that the straw 
is scratched absolutely free of grain at least once a day. In 
following this particular routine this should be the condition 
at noon. The really skilled feeder is the one who so handles 
the ration that he constantly piques the appetite of his fowls 
that they will consume large amounts of feed with relish, yet 
never gives quite all they would like to consume. As noted 
in other connections, of the two evils, "overfeeding" or 
"underfeeding" to a slight degree the latter is preferable. 
It limits production slightly, by not furnishing quite all the 
raw material that could be made over into a finished product, 
but it keeps the appetite keen and the body in good working 
order. Overfeeding, on the other hand, cloys the appetite 
and clogs the system, thereby limiting production even more 
than in the first case. 

Unless the weather is quite cool, fresh water should be 
supplied at the time of the evening feeding. In freezing 
weather commercial water heaters should be used, or other 
means provided to keep the water from freezing. Water 
must be available whenever the birds can see to eat if the 
best production is expected. 

Feeding with the Aid of Lights.— Rice 1 has pointed out that 
for best results at the nest, the period between feeds should 
never be over ten to twelve hours. During the winter months 
the time between the night and morning feeds exceeds this 
by several hours. The use of lights to lengthen the feeding 
day appears to have been first practised by Dr. E. C. Waldorf 2 
in 1895. Halpin 3 secured favorable results from the experi- 
mental use of lights at Michigan Agricultural College as 
early as 1906. It is only within quite recent years, however, 
that practical use has been made of artificial light in con- 
nection with feeding. The practice is now quite general in 
the coast states where commercial poultry farms abound. 

1 Cornell Countryman, vol. xvi, No. 1. 

2 Reliable Poultry Journal, vol. xxvii, No. 8. 

3 Ibid., vol. xxvi, No. 3. 



394 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Lewis 1 reports that practically all of the commercial poultry 
raisers of New Jersey are making use of lights. 

Just what the approved practice regarding the use of lights 
will finally be, cannot yet be foreseen. Among the several 
methods in use two appear to give the most promise. These 
are referred to as "morning lights" and "evening lunch." 

Morning Lights.— Lewis found morning lights superior to 
evening lights or to a combination of morning and evening 
lights. The best time for starting the lights was found to be 
4 a.m. running them until sun-up. In. connection with 
morning lights grain should be fed four times daily in a deep 
litter, viz., 4 and 8 a.m., 1 p.m. and just before dusk. The 
heaviest feedings should be given at dusk and at 4 a.m. 
The early morning feed may be scattered in the litter at night 
after the birds are on the perch. 

Evening Lunch.— With the so-called evening lunch method 
the birds are allowed to go to perch at dusk, and come down 
at daylight. The lights are turned on, however, for one 
hour at 8 p.m. during which time the birds are given a heavy 
feeding of grain with plenty of fresh water available. This 
method reduces the cost of lighting, as compared with other 
methods, gives the birds longer hours of rest and does not 
require the use of dimming devices as when evening lights 
are used; for after the first few days the birds will have all 
returned to their perches by nine o'clock at which time the 
lights are turned off. 

A graphic presentation of Lewis's 2 results with 600 pullets 
without lights, 500 pullets with morning lights and 100 pullets 
given an evening lunch may be seen in Figure 178. The 
comparative profits per bird for a period of nine months were 
$3.30, $5.07 and $5.48 respectively for the three groups. 

Details of Lighting Practice.— Following Lewis, when 
lights are used it is of the greatest importance that the stock 
should be graded and flocked according to age, condition and 
laying qualities. Pullets of different ages or pullets and hens 
should always be kept in different flocks. 

1 Hints to Poultrymen, vol. ix, No. 1. 

2 Ibid. 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 



395 



When pullets are kept under lights, the latter should be 
started November 1st and continued until April 1st, or later. 
Beginning with lights before November 1st brings on a heavy 
production in the early fall, making it almost impossible to 
hold the birds in high producing condition during the winter 
months. The few early eggs gained by the earlier starting of 
the lights are more than discounted by the winter production 
slumps which are almost sure to follow. 

Fig. 17S 





















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50 








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s -. v 








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/ 






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vs. 




40 


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/ 1 
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30 


// 




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20 






















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10 


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LEGEHP 

Ho Liqb 


\s 


















Liqbt5 
Zyerimq 


Lur?cl7 



























Nov Pec. Jan .Feb. Mar Apr May Jume. July 
A graphic presentation of Lewis's data on the use of lights. 



Lights are usually not so profitable with hens as with 
pullets. They should not be started before January 1st. The 
reason for this is that the hens must have time to finish the 
fall molt and regain their body weight. The regaining of the 
body weight is essential to satisfactory results in the breeding- 
pen the following spring. 

Tests show that layers will respond to lights in from seven 
to ten days. 



396 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

All classes of birds under lights should be more heavily 
grained than is customary under ordinary feeding conditions. 
The purpose of this is the maintenance of body weight. If 
it is not done the birds will lose weight rapidly under the 
drain of heavy laying, and are likely to go to pieces in the 
spring, so far as production is concerned. Lewis 1 found that 
for heavy producing Leghorn pullets 14 pounds of grain 
daily for each 100 birds was about the right amount, dry 
mash being available at all times. 

After April 1st the shortening of the period of lighting 
under any method should be very gradual, a reduction of 
ten minutes a day being the maximum. The sudden stop- 
ping of lights is quite likely to bring on a spring molt which 
is disastrous to production. Irregularity will produce a like 
result. 

Typical Laying Rations. — The Purdue Experiment Station 2 
has had excellent success with the following ration for laying 
hens in confinement: 

Grain Dry mash. 

10 pounds corn 5 pounds bran 

10 pounds wheat 5 pounds shorts 

5 pounds oats 3J pounds meat scraps 

25 pounds 13f pounds 

The grain mixture is fed in a deep litter, a light feed 
being given in the morning, and all the hens will consume 
in the evening. The dry-mash hopper is kept open all the 
time in the case of the lighter breeds, but is left closed until 
noon for the middle-weight and heavy breeds. In the 
winter, succulence in the form of silage, sprouted oats, 
cabbage, or stock beets is supplied. Professor Philips 
suggests the following possible variations in this ration: 

(1) replace the beef scrap with 50 pounds of skim milk; 

(2) drop out the wheat and increase the corn and oats; 

(3) in case fowls are following stock and can pick up an 
abundance of corn, the grain portion of the ration may be 
greatly reduced; (4) during the summer when the fowls 

1 Hints to Poultrymen, vol. ix, No. 1. 

2 Purdue Extension Bulletin No. 10, and Purdue Bulletin No. 218. 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 397 

are allowed to range freely, the mash portion of the ration 
may be considerably reduced. 

A laying ration originating at the Cornell Station and 
fed with excellent success at several of the stations is made 
up as follows: The scratching part of the ration consists 
of three parts wheat, two parts corn or kafir, and one part 
oats. The dry mash, fed at the rate of one pound for each 
two pounds of the scratching feed consumed, consists of: 

60 pounds corn meal 
60 pounds wheat middlings or shorts 
50 pounds meat scrap 
30 pounds wheat bran 
10 pounds linseed-oil meal 
10 pounds alfalfa meal 
1 pound salt 

This ration is fed in accordance with the routine outlined 
on page 392, succulence being furnished at noon, and grit, 
bone, shell, and charcoal kept before the birds at all times. 

A ration that has proved successful for laying hens of the 
Mediterranean type consisted, for the scratching part of 
the ration, of corn and wheat in equal parts. The dry mash 
was made up as follows: 

Corn meal 3| pound 

Wheat bran 5§ " 

Wheat middlings or shorts ....... 3 " 

Linseed-oil meal 1 

Meat scraps 2\ " 

Silage was fed in place of greenness during the winter. 
Shell grit and charcoal were before the fowls constantly. 

Gowell 1 recommended the following ration and routine 
for American breeds, which has been widely used: 

"Early in the morning for each 100 hens, 4 quarts of 
screened cracked corn are scattered on the litter, which is 
6 or 8 inches deep on the floor. This is not mixed into the 
litter, for the straw is dry and light and enough of the grain 
is hidden; so the birds commence scratching for it almost 
immediately. At 10 o'clock they are fed in the same way, 

1 Maine Bulletin No. 144. 



398 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

2 quarts of wheat and 2 quarts of oats. This is all of the 
regular feeding that is done. 

"Along one side of the room is the feed hopper. In it is 
kept a supply of dry meals mixed together. This dry-meal 
mixture is composed of the following materials: 200 pounds 
good wheat bran, 100 pounds corn meal, 100 pounds mid- 
dlings, 100 pounds gluten meal or brewers' grains, 100 pounds 
linseed meal, and 100 pounds beef scrap. 

"Oyster shell, dry cracked bone, grit, and charcoal are 
kept in slatted troughs and are accessible at all times. About 
5 pounds of clover hay cut into half-inch lengths is fed dry 
daily to each 100 birds in winter. 

"For green food during winter and spring, mangels are 
used. They are liked by the birds, and when properly 
harvested and cared for remain crisp and sound until late 
spring. They are fed whole, by sticking them on to pro- 
jecting nails about a foot and a half above the floor. Care 
must be exercised in feeding them, as they are laxative 
when used too, freely. On the average about a peck per day 
to 100 hens can be safely used. They would eat a much 
greater quantity if they could get it." 

Forcing Egg Production. — "Forced egg production during 
the season when eggs are the highest in price can sometimes 
be accomplished by increasing the protein, especially the 
animal protein, and stimulating the fowl by the use of 
moderate amounts of pepper, onion, etc. This must be done 
cautiously, however, and must not be continued too long. 
Green feed stimulates in a more normal manner, by refresh- 
ing the system (and furnishing an abundance of the fat solu- 
ble). Any grateful change in the feed stimulates the fowl." 1 

Feeding During the Molt.— Poultrymen frequently force 
chickens, intended for winter shows, to molt early, by gradu- 
ally cutting down the amount of feed fed to about one-third 
the normal amount during a period of about three weeks, 
and then during the following week increasing the ration 
rather rapidly until the birds receive all they will eat. 

This practice results in the dropping out of the old feathers, 

1 Jaffa, California Bulletin No. 164. 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 399 

and if done far enough in advance will result in the grow- 
ing of a new coat of feathers in time for the early winter 
shows. 

It is a matter of common knowledge that hens usually 
stop laying while going through their general molt in the 
fall, and do not begin again until along toward spring. 

The question is frequently raised whether hens cannot be 
induced to begin laying in the late fall or early winter by 
forcing the molt so that it will be well over by that time. 

In extensive experiments carried on by Rice, Rogers, and 
Nixon 1 they found that starved hens produced less eggs 
after the molt was complete and produced them at a greater 
cost per dozen than with hens fed normally. Mairs 2 also 
found that the net result of forced molting was against the 
practice. 

It is sometimes considered that as long as egg production 
ceases during the molt the feed may be cut down. Voit (as 
quoted by Lusk 3 ) showed that the metabolism of a pigeon 
may be doubled after removing its feathers. In a late 
general molt when the weather is cold, it seems reasonable 
to suppose that this condition is somewhat approached by 
hens. This certainly does not call for a diminution in the 
heat-supplying foods. The feathers themselves are largely 
protein, and demand a generous supply of protein for their 
growth. 

It is considered good practice to furnish an extra amount of 
oily feeds such as old-process oil meal, or sunflower seeds, 
and an abundance of granulated bone to furnish phosphates. 

Feeding Breeding Hens. — "The hens selected for breeding 
should not be forced either for rapid growth or egg production. 
In the early weeks they are fed, just as the others are, for 
growth, health, and vigor. When the special feeding for 
rapid growth or fattening of broilers begins, and also later 
when the laying stock is being pushed toward egg production, 
the breeding stock should be allowed to develop more slowly. 
It is better for the vigor of the progeny that they should 
lay fewer eggs and these of a high degree of vitality. Their 

1 Cornell Bulletin No. 258. 2 Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 87. 

' Science of Nutrition. 



400 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

mash should contain somewhat less of the concentrated 
protein." 1 

So far as routine is concerned, it is essentially the same as 
for layers. 

Feeding Capons. — In tests at Ohio Station, Sherwood and 
Buss 2 found that capons fed a ration consisting of corn, 
ground corn and meat scrap gave practically as good gains 
as a more elaborate ration containing wheat, oats and bran 
in addition, and gave a pound of gain a cent and a quarter 
cheaper at the then prevailing prices. The capons used 
were Barred Plymouth Rocks hatched June 6 and caponized 
October 6. They were fed for a period of fifty-seven days 
beginning December 12 and ending February 6. The birds 
were hopper fed in pens and allowed to balance their own 
ration. The average weight at the beginning of the feeding 
period was 4.13 pounds and at the end was 7.24 pounds, mak- 
ing an average gain of 47.77 per cent. The average feed con- 
sumption per bird for the period was 11.38 pounds of corn, 
5.88 pounds of ground corn, 6.7 pounds of meat scrap and 
0.4 pound of grit, shell and charcoal combined. 

Pen Fattening. — The final finishing of fowls for slaughter is 
usually the work of the packer rather than the grower. It 
is accomplished by milk feeding in crates. Farm-fattening, 
when practised at all, is usually limited to penning the birds 
intended for market so as to limit their exercise and feeding 
them for a period of from one to three weeks on a somewhat 
wider ration than is given for growing or laying, and increas- 
ing the amount of mash, moistening it if necessary. 

Because of the fact that the final finish is put on by the 
packer, fattening on the farm is usually unnecessary if the 
birds have been properly fed for laying or growth. A hen in 
prime laying condition usually carries a considerable amount 
of fat, and a rapidly growing bird will make more gain in 
weight by growth than will be taken on in the form of fat. 

When for any reason stock has been restricted with regard 
to feed or because of unfavorable conditions the chickens are 
not in good flesh, it will be found profitable to feed mature 

i Jaffa, California Bulletin No. 164. 
2 Ohio Bulletin No. 262. 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 401 

stock for a limited period upon a ration consisting largely of 
corn and corn meal before killing or selling for food purposes. 
Care should be taken, while encouraging the fowls to eat 
a large amount of feed, not to overdo the matter. It is well 
to supply all the accessories of the ration, including grit, shell, 
and charcoal, as with other classes of stock, and to furnish 
succulence and animal feed by way of variety. 

Milk Fattening. — Milk fattening refers to the practice of 
forcing the laying on of flesh with fowls by feeding a ration 
which consists of about two-thirds buttermilk by weight. 

So far as the author can ascertain, milk fattening was 
first practised in this country in 1900. During^that year 
S. Brill, a large poultry dealer from London, spent the fall 
months at the St. Joseph (Mo.) plant of Swift and Company 
and fed 1200 birds by way of demonstration. The following 
season he supervised the feeding of seven thousand head, 
since which time milk feeding has had an enormous growth. 

Owing to the action of acid in the milk or the lack of 
calcium in the ration, or some other cause, the bones of milk- 
fed chickens are usually very brittle and easily broken. This, 
in connection with the fact that milk-fed birds shrink very 
badly when shipped alive, precludes milk fattening on the 
farm, unless the fowls are also dressed at the farm. It is 
practically impossible to move fowls that have been fully 
finished on milk without causing the breakage of legs or 
wings, so bruising and scarring them that they present an 
unattractive dressed carcass, and having such a shrinkage 
that a large part of the gains are lost. 

In the routine of fattening, as many birds are placed in 
crates (see p. 415) as can find room to stand along the front 
of the crate to reach out to the trough for feed. They are 
starved twenty-four hours before the first feeding. The feed, 
which usually consists of about two parts by weight of butter- 
milk to one of ground grain, is in the form of a porridge, which 
is poured into the troughs before the birds, the feeder being very 
careful not to supply more than the birds will consume, or, 
in case of an oversupply, removing what remains just before 
the birds have had all they desire. The development of that 
judgment which enables the feeder to sense when the birds 
26 



402 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



are almost through eating and remove the feed just before 
they secure the last mouthful, which they desire, is the mark 
of the skilled fattener. 

The practice as to the number of times stock is fed daily, 
varies. It may be either two or three times. For the 
beginner, three times is probably advisable. 



Table XLIII.i 



-The Results of Milk Feeding Under Packing- 
house Conditions. 





Davs 
fed. 

10 
9 
S 

I 


Average 
weight. 
Pounds. 


Per cent of gain. 


Grain 


per pound of gain. 


Number 
of head. 


High Low 
per cent, per cent. 


Average 
per cent. 


High 

pounds. 

5.32 
5.10 
4.40 
4.55 
5.35 
5.35 


Low 

pounds. 


Average 
pounds. 


2.06S 
10,360 
11,878 
15,731 

3,907 


2.51 
2.40 
2.55 
2.39 
2.18 
2.42" 


23.5 11.5 
26.1 11.2 
27.1 10.9 

29.6 11.4 
IS. 6 8.2 
29.6 1 8.2 


IS. 5 
19.4 
17.2 
19.2 
13.1 
18.1 


3.01 
2.55 
2.17 
1.92 
2.14 
1.92 


4.04 
3.52 
3.37 
2.6S 
2.66 


43,944 


" 


3.26 





Cost of labor per 
pound of gain. 


Cost of feed per 
pound of gain. 


Total cost per pound 
of gain. 


Number 
of head. 


High. 
Cts. 

1.95 
2.09 
1.86 
2.31 
2.81 


Low. 
Cts. 


Aver- 
age. 
Cts. 


High. 
Cts. 


Low. 
Cts. 


Aver- 
age. 
Cts, 


High. 
Cts. 


Low. 
Cts. 


Aver- 
age. 
Cts. 


2.06S 

0,360 

11.S7S 

15,731 

13,907 


1.43 
0.99 
0.92 
0.8S 
0.9S 
0.88 


1.67 
1.51 
1.39 
1.17 
1.73 
1.40 


10.37 

9.95 

S.5S 

S.78 

10.39 

10.37 


5. SI 
4.97 
4.23 
3.71 
4.17 


7.84 
6.SS 
6.64 
5.42 
7.2S 


12.32 
11.77 
10.12 
11.09 
13.14 
13.14 


7.24 
5.96 
5.15 
4.61 
5.15 
4.61 


9.51 
S.39 
S.03 
6.59 
9.01 


43,944 


2.81 


3.71 


6.45 


7. So 



As shown in Table XLIII, Lee- found that on a ration 
consisting of 60 per cent corn meal and 40 per cent low-grade 
wheat flour, stock averaging 2.42 pounds in weight and fed 
for periods ranging from six to ten days, made an average 

1 Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 140. 

■ Hud. 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 403 

gain of IS per cent at an average feed cost of G.45 cents per 
pound. 

These figures involved nearly 44,000 birds fed under 
packing-house conditions, and represent a fair average for 
birds of this weight. The stock used was of all sorts and 
conditions. 

With smaller numbers and high-grade stock the producer 
that sells dressed birds may secure greater and somewhat 
more economical gains than are secured under packing-house 
conditions. 

Pierce and Lippincott, 1 using a ration composed of: 

, 1 part ground corn 

1 part ground oats (hulls removed) 
1 part ground barley (hulls removed) 
1 part meal scrap 
8 parts buttermilk 

which was fed to grade Barred Plymouth Rock cockerels 
averaging between 3| and 3| pounds, secured an average 
gain for twelve birds of over 50 per cent in a two-week 
feeding period at a cost of less than 4| cents per pound 
gain in one test, and a trifle over 5 cents at the then pre- 
vailing prices in the second test. The results in detail are 
shown in Table XLIV. 

Table XLIV 2 . — The Results of Milk Feeding Fowls in Small 

Groups. 

First Second 

test. teat. 

Cost of ration per pound $0.0075 $0.0075 

Average weight of twelve birds, beginning ... 3.25 3.49 

Average weight of twelve birds, end of first week . 4.25 4.72 

Average gain per bird 1.00 1.22 

Average weight of birds, end of second week . . 5.05 5.40 

Average gain for second week 0.80 0.6S 

Total gain per bird 1.80 1.90 

Per cent, gain for entire period 55.6% 54.6% 

Amount of ration eaten, first week 4.41 5.77 

Amount; of ration eaten, second week .... 6.44 6.97 

Total amount of ration eaten 10.85 12.74 

Cost of ration for twelve birds 0.9768 1.146 

Cost per k pound of gain 0.0441 0.0503 

1 Unpublished data, Iowa State College. 
- Ibid. 



404 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Bittenbender and Lippincott 1 found that while the addition 
of 5 per cent mutton tallow or beef suet to a basal ration of 
oat flour for crate fattening slightly increased the gains and 
lowered the cost of gains a little, the flavor of the resulting 
flesh was comparatively poor. When meat scrap formed 
25 per cent of the solid portion of the ration it imparted a 
noticeably strong taste to the flesh. When the meat scrap 
was replaced by corn meal the flavor of the flesh was ex- 
cellent. It was also found that when green clover and char- 
coal were put before the birds, two or three times a week, 
they ate of them greedily, brightened up considerably after 
each feeding, and consumed more of the regular ration. 

Mitchell 2 tested rations containing varying proportions of 
corn meal, low-grade flour, oat meal, pea meal, buckwheat 
middlings, and wheat middlings, and found that their effi- 
ciency varied directly with the proportion of corn meal. As 
a result of these tests he recommended that 24 pounds of 
white bolted corn meal, 6 pounds of wheat middlings, and 
4 pounds of pea meal or oat flour be mixed with enough 
buttermilk to make it the consistency of thin batter. Sour 
milk may be used if buttermilk may not be had, and if 
neither is available, add 15 per cent of beef scrap to the 
ration and moisten with water. This will not be nearly so 
satisfactory, however, as buttermilk. 

Philips 3 reports excellent results from a ration composed of : 

2 pounds corn meal 
1 pound shorts 
1 pound ground oats 
8 pounds buttermilk 

This mixture was allowed to stand twenty-four hours 
before feeding. 

FEEDING APPLIANCES. 

The feeding appliances found in general use are supply 
cans, feed hoppers, feeding troughs, and watering pans. 

1 Unpublished data, Iowa State College. 

2 Missouri State Board of Agriculture Bulletin, vol xi, No. 2. 

3 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Poul. Husb., vol. ii, No. 8. 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 



405 



For force-fattening, crates are a necessity, and cramming 
machines are infrequently used. 

Supply Hopper. — A supply of the grain fed out of hand 
should be kept at the hen-house. Everything that can 
reasonably be done to encourage poultry to make the poultry- 
house their headquarters when they are not ranging should 
be resorted to. It is bad farm practice to throw out feed for 
poultry around the granary. They soon learn the source of 

Fig. 179 




A serviceable supply hopper of proper dimensions to hold 200 pounds of grain. 
(Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



supply and will hang about the granary waiting for feeding 
time or watching for an opportunity to fly in. On most 
farms this constitutes a nuisance. 

If the poultry is fed at the poultry-house, as the practice 
should be, at least two trips from the granary to the chicken- 
house become necessary. These may be avoided by having 
a supply of grain at the chicken-house and at the same time 
will result in the hens gathering at the proper place at feeding 
time. 



406 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

A supply hopper, large enough to hold grain for at least a 
week's feeding, is a great convenience. While a metal hopper 
is preferable to a wooden one, because it is mouse- and rat- 
proof, a covered box hung on the wall will serve the purpose. 
It should have a sloping top, so that the fowls cannot roost 
on it. Such a hopper, of proper size to hold 200 pounds of 
grain, is shown in Figure 179. 

Feed Hoppers. — Hopper feeding is finding its way into 
all lines of feeding practice with the exception of crate 
fattening. In some cases it is restricted to the feeding of 
mineral foods. Usually it includes the feeding of the dry 
mash and in the case of growing stock at certain seasons of 
the year may be extended to include the feeding of whole 
ration. 

A hopper should have capacity enough not to require too 
frequent filling, should allow the birds free access to what- 
ever it contains, when open, without waste, and in some cases 
should be capable of being closed. If in addition it can be 
rat-proof, it is a great advantage. 

The most popular type of hopper is what is called the 
force-feeding, or self-feeding, hopper, by which is meant 
that only a small part of the feed contained in the hopper 
can be reached by the fowls at one time. As fast as it is 
consumed, however, more feed slips down from the storage 
compartment to take its place. An outdoor hopper covered 
over with prepared roofing is shown in Figure 185. Figure 
186 shows working plans of the same hopper. Figures 183 
and 184 gives the plans of a home-made indoor hopper that 
is capable of being closed. Figure 187 shows a three-com- 
partment and Figure 188 a single-compartment hopper for 
grit, charcoal, granulated bone, or oyster shell 

Feeding Troughs.- — For those mixtures wdiich will not serve 
as scratching feeds and are not suited for hopper feeding, 
troughs or trays of some sort are usually necessary. This 
applies to moist mashes for young and old stock and for the 
finely ground dry material fed little chicks before they are 
big enough to eat from a self-feeder. 

The desirable features of such appliances are ease of 
cleaning where moist feeds are given and the prevention 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 407 
Fig. ISO 




Home-made indoor hoppers. (Courtesy of Purdue Agricultural Experiment 

Station.) 



Fig. 181 




A home-mad3 hopper for indoor or outdoor use. (Courtesy of Kansas 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



Pig. 182 




A simple home-made dry-mash hopper. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural 
Experiment Station,) 



Fig 183 




Home-made, self-feeding mash hopper holding 100 pounds, closed. 
(Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



FEEDIXC rhWCTlCES AND MTLIAXCBS 409 



Fig. is i 




Showing the same hopper .'is in Figure 183 opened for the [owls to ea1 
(Courtosj of Kansas ALgricultural Expei'imenl Station.) 

Fig. L8S 




An outdoor hopper. (Courtesy of Cornell University.) 



410 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



of waste with the dry. For little chicks the latter may be 
accomplished by putting a piece of half-inch mesh hardware 
cloth into the top of the tray, as shown in Figure 190. The 
chicks are able to eat through this, but cannot scratch out 
the feed and waste it. 

Watering Pan. — A perfect watering device should keep the 
water clean and cool in warm weather, and be of such 
construction that it may be easily cleaned and freezing 
will not injure its usefulness. To keep water clear the water- 
ing arrangement should be high enough so that straw will not 
be scratched into it, and at the same time so situated that 
the fowls are not likely to perch on the edge and contaminate 



Fig. 186 




■- <-6 "iy\ ~$/ < ,>£* 



Working plans of the double outdoor hopper shown in Figure 185. 

it with droppings (see Figure 191) . Earthenware is probably 
best for keeping water cool in summer, but it will not stand 
freezing. Galvanized iron pans with flaring sides, as shown 
in Figure 191, withstand freezing well, and are among the 
most used watering devices for mature stock. Galvanized 
iron, however, is attacked by potassium permanganate, which 
is frequently put in the drinking-water to prevent the spread 
of disease by means of the water. In the course of time 
the permanganate will eat holes in it if used to any extent. 
For small chicks, a good form of watering utensil is shown 
in Figure 193. These work much the same as a self-feeding 
hopper. The tank, A, is closed at the top and open at the 
bottom. When it is filled and in place in the pan, B, the 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 411 

Fig. 187 




A three-compartment hopper for grit, shell, and bone. (Courtesy of 
Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Fig. 188 







Hi ifl 

GRIT 

ifl 


OYSTER 1 

SHELL 1 




H 



Single-compartment grit and shell hoppers. (Courtesy of Cornell 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 



412 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



water is given down only as fast as air is admitted to take 
its place. The latter can occur only as the chicks drink 



Fig. 189 




A home-made hopper to be used for free-range chicks. It can be divided 
so that one side holds a mash and the other coarsely cracked grains. 
(Courtesy of Reliable Poultry Journal.) 

enough of the water in the pan surrounding the tank to 
lower it below a small hole near the bottom of the tank. 
This allows a small volume of air to be admitted and enough 



Fig. 19 




A chick feeding-trough. (Courtesy of A. G. Philips.) 



water flows into the pan to bring the water level above the 
hole, thereby preventing any further flow of water into 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 413 

the pan. A tomato can and a pie tin will serve the same 
purposes. 

This arrangement gives a constant supply of water and 
prevents the chicks from getting into the water. It does 



Fig. 191 




A desirable galvanized-iron watering pan with a sloping top for protection. 

Fig. 192 




Chick drinking fountain. Used for young chicks in brooders and on 
range. Easy to keep clean. 



414 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

not preclude the scratching of litter and dirt into the pan 
or avoid some slopping and spilling. This may be accom- 
plished, however, by the arrangement shown in Figure 124. 
Where sufficient care is taken to keep the pan free of 
dirt these devices prove very satisfactory. While they 
are not so shaped as to withstand freezing, they are not 
likely to be in use in freezing weather. 

Fig. 193 




A Mason jar water fountain for chicks. (Courtesy of Kansas 
Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

Commercial watering devices fitted with a small lamp 
which warms the water just enough to keep it from freezing- 
are finding increasing favor among poultrymen. 

Fattening Crates. — The purpose of the fattening crate is 
to so confine the birds intended for fattening that they will 
have little opportunity for exercise and will be grouped 
within a small space so that the labor of feeding is reduced 
as much as possible. A number of crates built together as 
is usually done at the feeding stations of the packing-houses, 
is called a battery. 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 415 




III!] El 11 



416 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

The floor of each crate is 1-inch mesh-woven wire, which 
allows the droppings to work down into the dropping pan 
below. Each crate is provided with a removable roosting 
board upon which the fowls may rest between feeds. The 
dropping pan as shown in Figure 195 may be taken out and 
cleaned as frequently as necessary. 

Fig. 195 




Portable battery of feeding crates. (Courtesy of J. V. Mitchell.) 

For good results the crates should be located in the coolest 
spot possible. If this happens to be in a shed, care should 
be taken to provide an abundance of ventilation without 
direct drafts. 

Cramming Machine. — In European countries, cramming 
or machine feeding is practised quite extensively for the 
same purpose as crate feeding. It consists of a container 
in the form of a bucket, which is connected with a force 
pump worked by the feeder's foot by means of a treadle. 



FEEDING PRACTICES AND APPLIANCES 



417 



A tube leading from the pump is inserted into the gullet 
of the fowl until it reaches the crop, as shown in Figure 196, 
and the crop is filled by pressing the foot on the treadle. 
The ration used is the same as for crate fattening. 



Fig. 196 




Cramming machine. 

The advantage of this method over crate feeding lies in 
the fact that the fowl may be forced for several days after 
the appetite has begun to wane. The labor is considerably 
in excess of that necessary for crate fattening. Owing to a 
lack of skill, or some other unknown cause, machine feeding 
has not proved nearly so successful in this country as it has 
across the water. These two facts have prevented its general 
adoption in this country. 



27 



CHAPTER XI. 

TURKEYS. 

Turkeys were first discovered on the American continent 
in 1518. They are still found wild in a few sections of 
North America and over wide areas in Central and South 

Fig. 197 




Bronze turkey, male. 

America. After their discovery they were promptly domes- 
ticated and found their way to England as soon as 1524. 
They spread rapidly over Europe, and by 1565 were famous 
as a Christmas dish both at home and abroad, though there 
(41S) 



Tlli KEYS 



419 



are records that indicate that they did not reach Germany 
until 1580. 

In this country the Bronze and White Holland varieties 
have proved by far the most popular. 



Fig. 198 




White Holland turkey, male. 



Turkeys are essentially birds of the open country. For 
the best development, ease and economy of rearing, a wide, 
free range is necessary. Although they are indigenous to 
America and the climatic conditions are favorable, their 
numbers in the United States have declined very markedly 
in recent years, the last general census (1910), showing a loss 



-120 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

of 44 per cent as compared with the last census previous, 
and it is a serious question whether the race is not travelling 
toward extinction. The decrease has continued since 1910 
according to poultry dealers. This loss in numbers has been 
due in large measure to the spread of a fatal disease popularly 
known as "blackhead" (infectious enterohepatitis), and the 
reduction of suitable ranges by more intensive methods of 
farming. 

With the hope of building up the vitality of the domestic 
races to a point where they may resist this and other diseases, 
wild turkeys have quite frequently been crossed with them. 
In sections where wild turkeys still prevail, the crossing has 
been almost as frequently without design. This, combined 
with the fact that turkeys have never taken as kindly to 
domestication as chickens, has made them restless and im- 
patient of confinement, given to ranging and stealing their 
nests in out-of-the-way places. 

It has been found that the blackhead disease is apparently 
harbored by chickens, though causing them little inconve- 
nience. When it is communicated to the turkeys, however, 
it proves surely, and usually rather quickly, fatal. Once 
introduced on a farm, turkey-raising becomes difficult as 
long as chickens are also kept. 

This condition has led to the use of the western ranges for 
rearing turkeys, and it appears now as though the bulk of 
turkey-raising might eventually be found in the semiarid 
regions where great stretches of country are available. 
It is now frequently customary to put them out on range 
in droves, with a drover to look after them. A round-up of 
over eleven thousand turkeys in a turkey-raising district in 
Texas is shown in Figure 109. 

Farm Production. — The farm rearing of turkeys is extremely 
profitable in those sections in which blackhead has not made 
its appearance, and where foxes and coyotes are not prev- 
alent. A flock of turkeys requires but little investment 
in the way of buildings, and practically no feed, except 
during the fall when they are being fattened for market, 
and for the breeding stock during the winter. 

The turkey is a valuable aid to the farmer in keeping 



TURKEYS 



421 




422 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

down insects and worms in the fields, and in making them 
over into a marketable form. 

This is particularly true at the time of grasshopper out- 
breaks and the like. In 1911, Mr. Coffin, of Scott City, 
Kansas, had the second crop of 160 acres of alfalfa badly 
damaged by grasshoppers. After the damaged crop was 
removed, he turned 100 turkeys into the field. Thereafter 
there was very little damage done and but few grasshoppers 
found in the field the last week in August. 

"In 1912, Mr. Maune, of McCue, Kansas, raised 140 
turkeys whose range included 135 acres of alfalfa, 35 of which 
was left for a seed crop. The seed crop on other fields in 
that vicinity where no turkeys ranged was entirely destroyed, 
but this 35 acres set a heavy crop of seed." 1 

Fig. 200 




Turkeys saved this alfalfa crop. The neighboring fields were taken by 
grasshoppers. The owner of this field marketed the grasshoppers in the 
form of turkey meat. (Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment 
Station.) 

Selection of Breeding Turkeys. — The same care and atten- 
tion regarding constitutional vigor, size, trueness to breed 
type, and color should be observed in the selection of 
breeding turkeys as in fowls, particular attention being 
given to securing birds that show good size of bone in the 
shank. 

Birds that are deformed in any way, such as having crooked 

1 Kansas Bulletin, No. 215. 



TURKEYS 423 

backs, legs or toes, blindness or lameness, should never be 
used as breeders, unless the deformity is known to be the 
result of an accident and will not impair the breeding powers. 
There is a tendency among turkey breeders to breed as large 
in size as possible. Bronze toms have been known to weigh 
as much as 50 and 60 pounds. This tendency to breed large 
sized birds is because the large-sized birds appear best at 
shows and we gh most on the market. 

The market for large birds for meat purposes is limited, 
as the popular family weight is from nine to eighteen pounds, 
which will be the weight of a well-grown pullet and cockerel 
in the fall of their first year. Besides this, large toms are 
hard on the hens and usually do not make successful breeders. 

Number of Hens Per Tom. — One torn will serve from twelve 
to twenty hens, a good number being fifteen. It is well to 
have more than one male in each flock, as but one mating is 
required to fertilize a clutch of eggs, and if one hen does 
not mate well with one torn she may with another, thus 
avoiding infertility in her clutch. Most turkey breeders use 
early hatched, well-grown young toms (cockerels) as breeders. 
Care should be taken where more than one torn is used to 
see that they are docile and will not fight with each other. 
If they are quarrelsome they should be used alternately. 
The toes and spurs should be blunted and rounded, if neces- 
sary, before the breeding season, in order to prevent torn 
backs in the hens; especially is this necessary with extra 
heavy toms. If any backs are torn the cuts should be 
carefully washed out and the edges sewed together with a 
needle and thread, the hen kept in a separate pen for 
three or four days, and the wound bathed with a creosote 
disinfectant or rubbed with vaseline or lard and sulphur, to 
aid in rapid healing. Birds affected with torn backs may be 
detected in the flock by being lame and stiff in their walk, 
the torn skin being hidden by the surrounding feathers. 

Incubation of Turkey Eggs. — Turkey eggs may be success- 
fully hatched in incubators and the poults raised in brooders 
in a similar manner to chicks. It is the usual custom, how- 
ever, to allow the hens to raise their own poults. 

When a turkey becomes broody, as evinced by her remain- 
ing upon the nest at night and becoming angry when dis- 



424 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

turbed, she should be either allowed to set in the nest 
where she lays regularly or she may be moved. Moving a 
hen to a nest more suitably located should be done at night 
and two or three china or hard-boiled eggs should be placed 
under her as nest eggs. The nest should also be darkened 
during the day after removal, and the bird allowed off for 
food and water near night. If the moving is carefully done 
and the hen is thoroughly broody the change may be done 
without "breaking up" the hen. After she has been setting 
for two or three days a clutch of fifteen to twenty eggs may 
be placed under her, depending upon the size of the bird 
and the season. A large bird in warm weather may cover 
the larger number easily. At the time the turkey sets, from 
seven to nine turkey eggs should be placed under a broody 
common fowl, and the poults when hatched given to the 
turkey hen. The number allowed each hen should not exceed 
twenty to twenty-five. 

Turkey eggs hatch in from twenty-six to thirty days, the 
average being about twenty-eight. At the time of hatching 
the first hatched poults may be removed and placed under 
hens, if they will own them, or kept wrapped in a flannel 
in a basket in a warm place, or placed in a brooder, thus 
encouraging the hen to remain on the nest until the last 
hatched poults gain strength, rather than to start off with 
the first hatched, leaving the weaker ones behind. The 
poults removed may be placed under the hen at night, when 
she will own them without difficulty. The hens should be 
dusted three times with insect powder while setting, the 
last time on the twenty-fourth day. 

Nesting of Turkeys. — Turkeys mate the first clutch of eggs 
from the first of March until the first of April, and commence 
laying during the latter part of March or in April. These dates 
are subject to variation, due to climatic conditions. The breed- 
ing fowls should have been selected not later than the first of 
the year and only those birds held over which are to be used 
as breeders or sold on the holiday market. It is natural for 
a hen turkey to steal her nest, therefore many breeders 
place boxes and barrels tipped on their side and a nest made 
therein about the farm, in order to entice the turkeys to 
lay in them, where the eggs may be easily gathered. Other 



TURKEYS 425 

breeders yard their turkeys until about four o'clock in the 
afternoon, when alj eggs have been laid, thus compelling the 
hens to lay in nests provided for the purpose. Either method 
is good, and better than allowing the hen to steal her own 
nest, where it is subject to the raids of foxes, weasels, hawks, 
and skunks. 

A hen turkey will lay from twelve to twenty eggs in the 
first clutch before evincing a desire to set. If broken up 
at this point she may begin laying a second clutch after an 
interval of ten days. As soon as the hens begin to lay, the 
eggs should be gathered daily and kept in a cool place of 
even temperature and turned gently at least every two days. 
One egg of some kind should be left in the nest as a nest 
egg. More eggs will be laid when the eggs are gathered daily 
than when allowed to accumulate in the nest, because the 
large number of eggs in the nest seems to induce the hen to 
set sooner. 

Care and Feeding of Young Poults. — The attitude of inves- 
tigators toward the black-head disease (infectious entero- 
hepatitis) in turkeys has recently undergone a marked 
change. Hadley, 1 who is perhaps the foremost American 
authority on blackhead in turkeys, gives the reasons for this 
reversal of attitude in a recent paper. He now takes the 
position that the organisms causing this malady are omni- 
present, and that effort to avoid them is useless. Wild 
turkeys are quite free from the trouble, however, while their 
domesticated brothers are highly susceptible. This is in 
spite of the fact that the wild birds probably always harbor 
the organisms in the digestive tract. The difference is that 
modern methods of domestic turkeys feeding have somehow 
broken down the defensive agencies of the species, whatever 
they may be. 

The problem in feeding poults, therefore, is to so feed 
that the "normal antagonistic factors" can operate advan- 
tageously with regard to the disease. 

Dr. Hadley tentatively suggests the following routine for 
feeding to avoid blackhead. He points out that "it does 
not make so much difference what young turkeys are fed as 

1 Jour. Am. Assn. Inst, and Invest, in Poul. Husb., vol. ii, No. 8. 



426 POULTRY PRODUCT I OX 

it does how, and how much, they are fed. Particular atten- 
tion should therefore be given to his method. 

" After collection from the nests, hatch the turkey eggs in 
incubators, in the meantime having ordinary hens set on 
china eggs in nest boxes or brooders on the permanent range. 
Remove the poults from the incubator about twenty-four 
hours after hatching, and distribute at night among the hens. 
giving from twelve to fourteen to each hen. Be sure that the 
hen accepts them before they are left. Give no feed before 
the poults are two days old. Each family may then receive 
two teaspoonfuls of egg chopped fine with some green food 
such as nettles, dandelion, onion tops or lettuce. A little 
cracker may be added to take up surplus moisture so that 
the mixture will not be pasty. This ration may be repeated 
for the remainder of the feedings upon this day. or bread 
soaked up in sweet milk may be substituted for one meal. 

"During the first three or four days of feeding, the poults 
receive four meals each day, at about eight o'clock, eleven, 
two and five; after this but three meals are given. On the 
second day of feeding about the same rations are given, but 
one of the meals may be of chick grain, and some rolled oats 
may be added to the chopped-egg mixture. The third day 
of feeding is like the second. The poults are allowed to run 
in their enclosure. On the fourth or fifth day of feeding, 
the number of meals may be reduced to three, at eight 
o'clock, twelve and four-thirty, respectively. The amounts 
are slightly increased and a little grit may be added. 

"When the poults are about a week old they may be 
allowed to run free with the old hen on the range on pleasant 
days when the grass is dry. Chopped egg in the ration is 
reduced and omitted by the seventh day of feeding. On the 
sixth day of feeding the feeding is put on a time basis. 
Several spoonfuls of food are put on the tray and well dis- 
tributed, but the poults are not allowed to eat for more than 
about three minutes at any one meal. By the end of the 
second week, the time limit is reduced to two and one-half 
minutes, since the poults are now obtaining more food on the 
range in the form of insects. 

" About the same time sour milk is introduced. It is placed, 
whey and curd well mixed, in shallow pans or in troughs 



TURKEYS 427 

scattered about the range. It is at first given each morning 
and night at the rate of about one quart to forty poults, and 
is gradually increased in amount until by the beginning of the 
fourth month one quart may be given for each twenty birds, 
each morning and night. 

" During the second month, which is the critical period for 
the young birds, the feeding is continued about as in the latter 
part of the first month. But, after the age of about six 
weeks the number of meals per day may be reduced to two. 
Green food in the form of chopped carrot tops, onion tops, 
or lettuce should be given in abundance; it should comprise 
at least one-half of the ration for each meal. The time limit 
remains at about two and one-half minutes. 

"When the poults are about six weeks old the nest or 
brooder coops should be replaced by larger houses made, of 
laths and covered partly with roofing paper. Such a house 
may suffice until the poults are about three or four months 
old. These may be about three feet by five feet and three 
feet high at the apex. Family houses should then be given up 
and all the poults, with their mothers, be brought together in 
a single roosting shed. 

"The feeding for the third month is like that of the second 
except that the amount of sour milk is gradually increased 
and that a grain mixture of equal parts of cracked corn and 
wheat may be gradually substituted for the chick grain. 

"As the autumn months advance and the insect life dis- 
appears, the time limit may be lengthened to three or three 
and one-half minutes. In rainy weather the noonday meal 
may be added and a four-minute period allowed. Rolled 
oats may be omitted and the ration made to consist of the 
grain mixture with an occasional feed of rolled oats or bread 
and milk. A mash may now be added containing some 
beef scrap. 

" Before Thanksgiving the breeders for the coming season 
should be selected and marked. Their feeding for the winter 
may consist of the following grain mixture fed at the rate of 
one quart for six or seven turkeys each night and morning: 

Cracked corn 3 parts 

Barley 2 " 

Wheat 2 " 

Oats 1 part." 



428 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Both hen and poults should be carefully examined for lice, 
and if they are found should be carefully dusted with lice 
powder twice a week. The lice may usually be found, if 
present, in the vicinity of the vent, on the head and neck 
and at the base of the wing feathers. The walls and roof 
of the roosting-house may also be sprayed with a liquid lice 
killer or creosote dip, but it should not be applied to the 
floor, as the fumes rising under the feathers of the hen will 
sometimes suffocate the poults. Lard in very small amounts 
may be rubbed on the head of the poults to kill the head 
lice, but care should be used not to apply too much, as it will 
kill the poults if applied in excess. A piece the size of a pea 
is sufficient for each bird. 

Feeding for Market. — As soon as the supply of feed on the 
range fails the turkeys begin to hang around the buildings 
more. Unless the birds are penned up it is practically im- 
possible to do much in the way of fattening until they quit 
ranging, which is hardly early enough to get them ready 
for Thanksgiving trade in most sections. 

Bolte 1 found that while greater gains could be secured by 
crate-fattening than by corn-feeding on range, the increased 
gains were not great enough to pay for the extra labor 
involved. 

Blanchard 2 tried feeding turkeys in darkened pens for two 
weeks, admitting light only at feeding time, and could secure 
no gains. Other birds fed the same ration and confined in 
roomy pens having a runway of twenty by fifty feet gained 
two pounds to ten and one-half pounds each in two weeks. 
The ration consisted of 6 parts corn meal, 2 parts wheat 
middlings, 2 parts meat scrap by weight, moistened with 
milk. No statement is made as to the cost of the gains. 

Where penning is impracticable they should have all the 
corn they will consume and be given a liberal allowance of 
meat scraps. The birds that are not in condition at Thanks- 
giving should be fed out for the Christmas market. 

1 Rhode Island Bulletin No. 126. - Washington Bulletin No. 96. 



CHAPTER XII. 
DUCKS AND GEESE. 

DUCKS. 

Ducks are the meat birds among poultry. They are hardy, 
easy to handle, with the exception of picking, and make 
the quickest gain in flesh from time of hatching of any kind 
of domestic poultry excepting possibly geese. A duck, to 
be profitable, should weigh five pounds at the end of ten 
weeks. It will take a chicken of the American varieties 
twice as long to attain that weight. 

Most of the domestic breeds of ducks are Asiatic in origin, 
though Europe and America have each made contributions. 
The Pekin, which is easily the most important meat producer 
among the ducks, came originally from China. It was first 
imported into England in 1872, and reached the United States 
in January, 1874. The Aylesbury originated with a pair of 
wild white ducks, captured in England. The Rouen is 
descended from domesticated wild Mallards in France and 
takes its name from the city of Rouen. The Muscovy 
originated in South America where it is still found in the 
wild state. "The Cayuga derives its name from Cayuga 
County, New York, where it was probably developed about 
1850. " L It resembles the Pekin in shape, but is somewhat 
lighter in weight. Though a very good market duck, it has 
not become widely distributed, possibly because of its dark 
plumage. 

The Runner duck was introduced into England about 
the middle of the last century and reached this country 
during the last decade of that century. It is winning a 
reputation as an egg producer, but their ultimate popularity 

1 Lee. U. S. Bulletin 697. 

(429) 



430 



POULTRY PRODUCT 




A farm £::k oi WMte ?ei:u chicks. 








irer iu^? 



DUCKS iND - 431 

and usefulness are not yet determined. Its place of origin, 
usually attributed to India, is uncertain. 

For practical purposes ducks may be divided into three 
groups, namely, (1) the meat group, which includes the 
IVkiu. Aylesbury, Muscovy, Rouen, Cayuga, Buff, and 
Swedish (2) the egg group, which includes the Runner 
only, and (3) the ornamental group, which is comprised of 
the Call, Crested White and Black East India. The Man- 
darin and Wood ducks are beautiful birds which could well 
be included in The Standard, 

Breeding- Ducks. The heaviest, most vigorous, and best- 
shaped birds should be selected, at the time oi marketing 
the green ducks, as breeders the succeeding year. Watery 
eyes are usually considered a sign oi weakness in ducks, By 

selecting the largest birds as breeders, the rapidity oi growth 
in the offspring may be increased to such an extent that the 

average weight of ten-weeks-old ducks ma\ be raised consid- 
erably. Individual Pekin drakes have been known to weigh 
nine pounds at this age and ducks, seven. With good care, 

ducks begin to lay from the first ^( December until the middle 

o( February, and should lay from eighty to one hundred 
eggs each before the middle o( July, when they begin to 
moult. Only ducks over two years old should be used for 
breeding. The drake is at his best the first two seasons. 

Number of Ducks per Drake. In the early part o( the breed- 
ing season five ducks should be allowed for each drake, and 
the number increased as the season progresses. The propor- 
tion of drakes should be decreased when they begin to worry 
the ducks, In April eight or ten females is not too mam for 
one drake. 

Means of Telling Drake from Duck. In the colored varieties, 
as the Rouen, the drake may be distinguished by his brilliant 
coloring, but in the solid white varieties, such as the Pekin 
and Aylesbury, the task is not so easy. The drake seldom 
quacks, but hisses, is generally heavier, and not so tine 
about the head and neek. The most pronouiuvd difference, 
however, is that the drake has two feathers near the base of 
the tail, called "curl feathers." which CUrl toward the head, 
while the duck's feathers lie smooth, 



432 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Incubation of Duck Eggs. — The desire to incubate their own 
eggs has been bred out of many strains of ducks, especially 
the Pekin. For this reason the incubator or broody hens are 
necessary. The eggs should be gathered daily, kept in a 
cool place, and turned daily. Ducks' eggs will not keep as 
well as hens' eggs. 

In natural incubation the eggs are placed under a broody 
duck in a nest on the ground or floor of the house. If placed 
under hens, ten are about all that may be successfully 
covered. 

When placed in incubators the care given duck eggs is 
similar to that given hens' eggs except that the temperature 
should be kept at 102° F. for the first three weeks. Special 
duck incubators are manufactured, which have a larger egg 
chamber than do those used primarily for hens' eggs. More 
moisture is also required in the hatching of ducklings than 
of chicks. Ducks' eggs should be tested for fertility on the 
third or fourth day when developing embryo may be readily 
seen. 

Brooding Ducks.— Ducklings take even more kindly to 
artificial brooding than chicks do. They are handled in the 
same manner as chicks except that the temperature which 
should be 95° F. at the beginning will usually be reduced to 
between 80° and 85° within a week or ten days. 

Housing and Yarding Ducks. — The chief factors in a house 
for ducks are dryness, fresh air with freedom from draughts, 
and cleanliness. It is not necessary to build as expensive 
houses as for fowls, because ducks are naturally hardier and 
can stand the cold and lack of sunshine better. The floor of 
a duck-house, which may be any tight shed or outhouse if 
but few are kept, should be kept well bedded with straw and 
cleaned out as soon as the straw becomes matted and damp. 
Dry feet while in the house at night seems to be a necessity 
for good egg production. The ducks will make their nests 
on the floor of the house by burrowing in the straw. The 
number of ducks per house should be about one for every 
six square feet of floor space for breeders; fattening and 
young ducks may be kept closer. 

An eighteen-inch two-inch mesh fence will hold most ducks, 



DUCKS AND GEESE 433 

and a two-foot fence all of those commonly raised, as most 
of them cannot fly. 

Care should be taken not to frighten ducks by moving 
among them at night with a lantern, as they are liable to 
stampede, thereby causing a stopping of egg production, 
loss of flesh, if not the death of some by trampling. 

Feeding Standard for Growing Ducks.— Ducks grow faster 
than chickens do, and not only demand more pounds of dry 
matter per unit of weight, but also a greater proportion of the 
growing nutrients, protein and ash. The standard for grow- 
ing ducklings as computed by W. P. Wheeler is given in Table 
XLV. 

Table XLV. — Digestible Nutrients Required per Day for Each 
100 Pounds Live Weight of Growing Ducklings. 





Dry 






Carbohy- 




Nutritive 




matter. 


Ash. 


Protein. 


drates. 


Fat. 


ratio. 


First 2 weeks 


. 17.2 


1.1 


4.0 


11.2 


1.4 


1 to 3 . 7 


From 2 to 4 weeks . 


17.0 


1.5 


4.1 


10.1 


1.3 


1 to 3 . 2 


From 4 to 6 weeks . 


. 11.2 


0.8 


2.7 


7.0 


0.7 


1 to 3 . 3 


From 6 to 8 weeks . 


8.0 


0.6 


1.7 


5.2 


0.5 


1 to 3.8 


From S to 10 weeks 


7.0 


0.5 


1.4 


4.7 


0.4 


1 to 4.1 


From 10 to 15 weeks 


4.6 


0.3 


0.9 


3.2 


0.2 


1 to 4 . 1 



A "ration in accord with the standard given for ducklings 
might be constituted as follows: Eight pounds of corn meal, 
3 pounds wheat middlings, 2 pounds ground barley, 2 pounds 
old-process linseed meal, 6 pounds animal meal, 2 pounds of 
fresh bone, and 3 pounds of young green alfalfa." 

Feeding Breeding Ducks. — The birds selected for breeders 
should be kept, ducks and drakes separated, in roomy, shady 
pastures, where plenty of grass may be obtained, or on free 
range, and fed a light ration of bran, ground oats, a little 
meat meal, and grit. A large portion of the ration will come 
from the grass upon which they may graze. A good mash 
mixture to feed during this period is 2 parts wheat bran, 1 
part corn meal, and 1 part ground oats. Corn, oats, or barley 
may be fed lightly at noon, although some breeders omit 
the noon feeding. Water in dishes deep enough so that the 
nostrils may be cleansed is necessary, and an inverted can 
should be placed in the dish or a grate placed over it to pre- 
28 



434 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



vent the birds from getting into the dish. Water in which 
the birds may swim is not necessary, although ducks kept 



Fig. 204 




Ducks receiving no animal protein. Notice comparative number and size. 
(Courtesy of W. P. Wheeler.) 

on a sandy soil or thick green sod will keep cleaner if a 
swimming place is provided. 



Fig. 205 




Ducks receiving animal protein. (Courtesy of W. P. Wheeler.) 

About the first of November the breeding ducks should be 
placed in flocks of thirty to forty in the breeding pens and 
yards and fed for laying by allowing free access to a dry 
mash, which may be composed of 2 parts wheat bran, 1 part 
middlings or ground oats, 1 part corn meal, and 1 part beef 



DUCKS AND GEESE 435 

scraps. All the green feed in the shape of cut alfalfa, clover, 
or chopped roots that they will clean up should be given. 
Grit and water should be available at all times. If they 
are kept confined in the pen until eight o'clock in the morning 
nearly all eggs will be laid upon the floor of the house rather 
than some in the yard, as ducks usually lay in the early 
morning. 

Feeding Young Ducklings. — After the ducklings are hatched 
they should be kept without food for thirty-six hours, 
either in the incubator or under a hen. After removal 
to the brooder or after thirty-six hours under the hen without 
feed, the feed for the first week may consist of equal parts of 
bran, corn meal, and middlings, with 5 per cent, sand in it 
for grit, fed five times daily. After the third day, 5 per cent 
of sifted meat scrap may also be added, and green food in the 
form of chopped lettuce, alfalfa, or clover should be fed freely. 

After the first week a good growing ration is 2 parts wheat 
bran, 1 part wheat middlings, 1 part corn meal, \ part meat 
scrap, 5 per cent sharp sand, scalded cut clover, alfalfa, 
or other green food, as much as they will eat. Feed four 
times a day. 

At the beginning of the eighth week the young ducks should 
be moved into the fattening shed or kept in a shady place 
and fed for three weeks on a fattening ration of equal parts 
wheat bran, middlings, corn meal, and 10 per cent of beef 
scrap, 5 per cent sharp sand, and green food. It must not 
be left before them at all times, however, as it is rather 
concentrated, and they are liable to tire of it. 

Special care should be taken that young ducks are not 
exposed to a hot sun without a chance of shade, nor allowed 
out in a rain-storm before they are feathered out. Rain while 
in the downy stage is oftentimes fatal. 

GEESE. 

The geese most common on American farms are the 
Embden and Toulouse. Both are probably descended from 
the Gray Lag goose — until recently found all over Europe 
and Northern Asia. The Toulouse owes its name to the city 









. . . 3* ^ 

\ . . . - 

JS . . • - . . .-. . . 

...... ^ - .... 

-. - - 

^ . . -. JS ... - -. 







- ■ . . . - - • 



- •- - - - ■ •• -" 

... • 






5 



/>( CKS AND (.'/■ S 



! 



ow "g to the faet that if there lerable amount of 

droppings on the pasture theeahlo will refuse to oat thegi 
A few geese at tibem on a farm of any si e do no notieeable 
harm in this regard. 

When (hoy are pastured on swamp latul, which they may 
be to the number of fifty to the aere, there should always 
ome high, well-drained land available where the birds 
ean get away from the dampness when they wish. 

t'u: ' 



1 



■ 






Paii of Touta 

They must have shade in warm weather or tho\ sutler 
from the heat, If allowed the mn of the otvhard they will 
eonsnme the wasted and spoiled fruit, making gains that 
are praetiealb without cost. They should not be united 
into a newl\ planted oivhard, however, .0. lhe\ will injure 
the tender bark of the young trees. 



POULTRY PEODUCTIOX 

Selection of Breeding Geese. — Geese should nor be used 
tor breeding purposes until the second breeding season 
The ganders may be used the firs: season and for several 
seasons thereafter. For best results not more than tire 
geese should be mated to one gander, though the number is 
frequently increased to four. 

"Sex is difficult to distinguish in g — specially when 

they are young. gander is usually somewhat larger and 

ser than the goose and has a shrill cry. while the female 

has a coarse cry. The male has a heavier, longer neck and a 

larger head. The sex may be determined by inspecting the 

sexual organs . by the action of the geese at mating time. 

The sphincter muscle which closes the anus of the female is 

folded and winding or sinuous if stretched, while a slight 

-sure on the corresponding section of the male will make 

the sexual organ protrude. This resr is more easily made 

mature male and in warm weather." 1 

Live Plucking. — The live plucking :: geese is not nearly 
sc oommon as formerly. It used to be quite common to 
pluck the geese five tunes .. year at intervals of seven weeks. 

5j boning the last week in March. TYhere it is prac::-;:. 
at all now it is generally confined to the period immediately 
preceding the moult Hiey should not be plucked during 
the breeding s-;.-.son. 

Incubation of Goose Eggs. — The first c:shr.gs should not 
be hatched until the grass is green. Incubators have not 
; r ved very successful :;r the hatching :: geese audit is 
better to allow the geese to set or place the eggs under he us 
Geese will cover nine or ten eggs successfully, while hens 
of the American breeds should not be ;:ven over three or 
four in cool weather and five :r six m warm weather Che 
length of time necessary for hatching varies r'rorn twenty- 
- ::: to thirty-three ... s but h. average about thirty 

When :' -;; are about due :: hatch, if hea - aw used tl i 

est should be carefully watched and the first goslings taken 

out as s;;n::s:he; ■;.:;/ •--.--..: :: e: .'.: ?.ndhepi 



Ducks axd geese 439 

in a warm place. They should be kept away from the nest 
until the youngest goslings are several hours old, when they 
may be given back to the hen. If this is not done the hen 
is likely to become restless and leave the nest with the older 
goslings before the late ones are strong enough. 

They should be closely confined with their mother until 
they are three or four days old, after which they may be 
allowed at liberty with their mother in a grassy pasture. 

Most successful goose raisers make a practice of not allow- 
ing the goslings in the water until they are full-feathered on 
their breasts. Until they are fairly fully feathered they 
should be sheltered on rainy days. If they are thoroughly 
wet through and chilled before growing their feathers it is 
likely to prove disastrous. 

Feeding Mature Geese. — When, because of drouth in the 
summer or during the winter, it becomes necessary to feed 
mature geese, they should be fed such feeds as mangels, 
turnips, steamed clover and the like, supplemented by a 
mash of equal parts of corn meal, bran, and ground oats. 
Owing in part, perhaps, to the limited development of the 
crop, the goose is not able to make very satisfactory use of 
dry whole or cracked grains. In furnishing any feed to young 
or old stock there must always be an abundance of drinking 
water at hand at the place of feeding. Grit, bone, and char- 
coal should also always be available. 

Breeding geese should not be very fat. For this reason 
geese do better on pasture with stock than about the troughs 
of the feeding lot. They should be fed grain only semi-occa- 
sionally, to prevent their becoming too wild. In the winter, 
mangels, Swede turnips, clover, or alfalfa hay should form 
most of their ration. Wherever they are kept they must 
have plenty of drinking-water, though water for swimming 
is not necessary. During the breeding season, however, 
water deep enough for swimming is considered a necessity for 
successful mating. 

Geese lay from twenty to thirty eggs in a season if not 
allowed to set. Boxes and barrels should be placed in secluded 
spots where they will be somewhat hidden by brush. The 
seese will usually take to them if thev are secluded enough, 



fc] :. \ \ S 

and thus save < - trouble in locating ests 

goos* - or own aest an ample number 

nld be provided. 
Feeding Goslings Sos gs should be fed caw the 

first week or ten days Ilsecuren s 

oJ I . eed ed the ru .. good pasture C i 

sers - on, but all 

... :. ; . in : goi >■ a mash '.".■> ma; consist ol 

meal, b is added IC per - 1 I meat scrap or 
parts corn meal. parts shor:s -.v.r: meat - 

er of thest rat rts should be m©is:< - .'. : 
- - . . •:• \ .-v ■•■ .■/:. - .'..■: ... eces- 

sar\ . . . . .. d birds ha\ - g 

Wxxiled Oeese \ . - . . . - . . - - 

sections, nob '■'■ - '■"'■ - 5 thi produ< 1 

ed geest '. : s, i s» ethod 

.. a - oodles 

Phe noodles i -. ■ . - - 

e made as - [hey consfet arent mast 

gradi sift* and 

oatmeal. This is i] v. .... - t with milk or water 

and run throng - ed sausage press. As it comes 

the press it is a:: r.v :. n> : - 

. .-. paii . shears Cnese links « stituti the nood i s 
. re tbeu v. lied in si good grade of Bow ... i e 

. a . . I Is 9 title 

.'.....-. . . ftto 8 double boak: .. 

a . rebaskets 

. . . . . - 1 

.... . . rise to the top As s©< 

s occurs t . . . * mmeised 

prevents them £:. sticking together i 

being . t danger breaking 

A> ma] as ai 

oh softens tbi - 

make it eas or the g - 1 I swaU« 



V N | \ 



IU 



For feeding, the geese are confined in a shed in pens about 

eight by ion Feet, Near One corner a partition about two feet 
high is built, extending out from the side of the pen about 
three feet, leaving a space about three feet square. Into this 

e the geese are driven for feeding. The feeder sits on 
low stool at the end of this partition, reaches back and leads 
a goose from the small pen. The goose stands on the ground 
between the knees of the feeder, who opens the mouth with 
the left hand while he slips a noodle in with his right. 




Unloading dressed 



(Cowvtesj cvf J *.;. tinlpiu. 



Enough noodles are inserted to iill the gullet up to within 
two inches of the throat. After feeding the goose is allowed 
to walk out into the main pen and drink from a trough of 
warm water, in which may be sprinkled a little eorn meal. 

A goose should never be noodled until she has digested all 
the noodles from the previous feeding, At first the geese 
are fed about four times a day. The number of feedings is 
increased gradually until the birds are icd every three hours, 
day and night. Great care must be taken at all times not to 
frighten the birds, or they will stampede. 



442 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

The feeding period usually lasts from two to three weeks, 
and the gains made run from 20 to 40 per cent at a feed 
cost varying from 10 to 20 cents per pound gain. Besides 
the marked gain in weight secured, the livers of the birds 
become very much enlarged, and are much prized by epi- 
cures, being known under the name "pate de foi gras." The 
demand for these enlarged livers is not anywhere near sup- 
plied, and considerable quantities are imported from France 
and other European countries. Goose fat, or goose oil, is 
also in good demand and high in price. 

Noodled geese are in demand in the Hebrew sections of the 
larger cities, and offer a lucrative though very confining 
three weeks' work, falling usually in late November and early 
December. 



CHAPTE[R XIII. 
PIGEONS AND GUINEA-FOWL. 

BREEDS OF PIGEONS. 1 

Pigeons are divided into three general classes: (1) 
Those differentiated by characteristics other than color 
markings, which include the English Carrier, Pouter, 
Barb, Short-faced Tumbler, and Runt; the latter strangely 
enough is the largest of the pigeons, (2) Those differen- 
tiated by a peculiar arrangement of the feathers, as well 
as by color markings, which include Turbits, Jacobins, 
Scandarcons, Frillbacks, Owls, Trumpeters, Fantails, Dra- 
goons, Priests, Brunswicks, Oriental Frills, Florentines, and 
Homers. (3) Those in which color markings alone are 
distinguishing characteristics, which include the Nuns, 
Magpies, Swallows, Helmets, Spats, Archangels, Suabians, 
Shields, Ice Pigeons, Starlings, Breasters, Moorheads, 
Long-faced Tumblers, Porcelains, Hyacinths, Quakers, 
Lahores, and Mookies. 

Of all these breeds the Homer, with its grades and crosses, 
is the only breed that enters largely into squab production. 

Pigeon Breeding. — With pigeons the influences of breed- 
ing is confined to a single pair, and the breeding loft should 
contain only working pairs of breeders. A working pair 
refers to birds which have voluntarily taken each other as 
mates. The so-called "hand-mated" birds, by which refer- 
ence is made to the fact that the birds have been mated 
by confining them in a mating coop, frequently prove un- 
satisfactory because the mating proves to be temporary. 
Voluntary mating is usually for life. 

1 This classification is the one offered by Long in "The Poultry Book." 

(443) 



444 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



Mating is accomplished by allowing the unmated birds 
to occupy a room containing some nest boxes. As soon as 
a pair is observed to start building a nest together they 
should be caught, banded, and removed to the breeding 
loft. Usually about 90 per cent of the birds will mate 
where upward of one hundred are placed in the mating- 
room. After a pair is mated the cock drives the hen until 
she deposits her eggs in the nest. A good driver is likely 
to be a good breeder. 

Fig. 209 




Squabs ("peepers"), twelve hours old. 



Two eggs are laid about thirty-six hours apart and usually 
hatch between sixteen and eighteen days after the last egg 
is laid. When the eggs are first hatched sex cannot be 
determined, but if both eggs are hatched and prove to be 
a pair the cock will usually hatch about twelve hours earlier 
than the hen. Where two squabs hatch in the same nests 
of unequal size they should be changed from nest to nest 
so that the pairs are evened up in size. If this is not done 
the earliest hatch or largest bird will crowd the smaller one 
so that it is likely to die. 



PIGEONS AND GUINEA-FOWL 



445 



Pigeons mature at five months, but are said not to breed 
until the tail feathers are moulted. In order to hasten the 



Fig. 210 




Squabs ("squeakers") > twenty-four hours old. 
Fig. 211 




Squabs ("squealers"), twenty-eight days old, ready for market. 

breeding it is sometimes customary to pull the tail feathers 
out at the age between six and nine weeks, at which time 
they may be placed in the mating-room. 



446 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

A young pair will usually not produce more than two 
pairs of squabs the first year. While unusual, mature pairs 
sometimes produce as high as twelve pairs in twelve months ; 
the average production probably lies between five and six 
pairs. Breeders are at their prime at three years, and six 
to seven years mark the limit of their usefulness. 

In squab-breeding the white meat is the most desirable. 
This white meat may be detected by the white toes, beak 
and flights, and red legs. Some of the best breeders secure 
this by crossing a Florentine and Runt and crossing the off- 
spring with a Homer, while others prefer the pure Homer. 

Pigeon Houses. — Any outbuilding that is dry and has a 
board floor may be used for a pigeon loft. It should be 
sheltered and have a south exposure. It is customary to 
allow four square feet of floor space per pair of birds. Upon 
this basis it is possible to house one hundred pairs in a 
building 25 x 16 with a gable 10 feet high. Dryness is 
so essential that squab breeders frequently erect their 
houses on posts, giving a clearance of two feet between the 
ground and floor. 

The nests should be placed on the north, east, and west 
walls, beginning one foot above the floor. This may be 
done by nailing a cleat on the east and west walls one foot 
wide and holding a board ten to twelve inches wide one foot 
above the floor; every ten inches above these other cleats 
should be laid clear to the roof, after laying boards of uni- 
form width clear to the topmost cleat. Partition pieces 
10 x 12 may be cut and inserted between the shelves every 
ten inches. Between these partitions pottery nests nine 
inches across and four inches deep should be placed. 

Good perches may be made by nailing two pieces five 
inches wide and six inches long at right angles. These 
perches should be nailed to the wall (as shown in Figure 212) 
running clear to the top of the house, one perch every nine 
inches. By placing these at right angles and letting the 
median line of the upright bisect this angle the necessity 
of cleaning the perches will be obviated. There should 
be one perch for every bird. The floor of the house should 
be kept bare of Utter and cleaned at least once a month. 



PIGEONS AND GUINEA-FOWL 



447 



Tobacco stems cut up into four-inch pieces make the 
best material for nests. 

A flight should be provided, figuring on the basis of a 
space 25 x 25 feet and as high as the house, for fifty birds. 



Fir,. 212 




Interior of pigeon pen showing a feed hopper, roosts, nest boxes, and different 
kinds of nest pans. (Courtesy of Bureau of Animal Industry.) 

Feeding Pigeons. — During the first days of its life the squab 
is fed a cheesy substance regurgitated from the crop of both 
parents for a period of five to seven days; for the subse- 
quent two weeks partially digested grain is fed in the same 



448 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



manner. After they are three weeks old they can usually 
be fed the same ration as the old stock. This should con- 
sist of a variety of feed, such as corn, peas, and red wheat. 
White wheat seems to have an injurious effect upon the 
digestive tract and to cause bowel trouble. 



Fig. 213 




Pigeon house and fly. 



Note bath pan against fence, 
of Animal Industry.) 



(Courtesy of Bureau 



A good ration is reported by T. S. Wright, one of the 
largest squab breeders in the East, to be the following: 



1 bushel cracked corn. 

1 bushel red wheat. 

J bushel Canada peas. 
5 bushel kafir. 

2 peck Russian hemp seed. 



The ration may be fed three times daily on the floor, 
allowing one handful for every three birds, or by means of 
feeding troughs. Care must always be exercised to see that 
the grain is not musty, for musty feed will kill pigeons just 
as it does young chicks. 

Rock salt, oyster shell, and grit should always be avail- 
able, and green feed in the form of lettuce, plantain, and 
water cress should be fed once a day. Aside from the water 



PIGEONS AND GUINEA-FOWL 



449 



furnished for drinking, and contained in fountains similar 
to chick fountains, water for bathing should be supplied in 
pans three to four inches deep. This water should be 
thrown out as soon as the pigeons have had their daily bath. 

GUINEA-FOWL. 

Guineas are quite similar to turkeys in their habits and 
management. They have never become fully domesticated, 
are impatient of restraint, preferring to roost out in the 

Fig. 214 




Pearl Guinea-fowl. Male and female. (Courtesy of Bureau of Animal 

Industry.) 



open, though they will frequently roost in the hen-house 
with the chickens. They are very hardy and usually neces- 
sitate little care. Because of their watchful alertness and 
their loud warning cries in the presence of danger, they are 
frequently kept on farms to warn the other fowls of danger 
and to frighten away hawks, crows, and the like. Guineas 
have only recently been recognized as a standard class of 
poultry. But one variety, the pearl, has been admitted to 
the standard, though whites are not uncommon, 
29 



IS . - : : : 

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C 11 A P IV R XIV, 
PREPARING roil I'KY PRODUCTS, 

SEASONAL PRODUCTS. 

Eggs and poultry are seasonal products. According to 
the Bureau of Statistics. United States Department of Agri- 
culture, 1 49,8 per cent, or practically half of the egg crop of 
the United States is produced in March, April . Ma\ and June, 

as shown in Table \1 VI, though July and August are 
usually counted as a part of the egg season. The tlnsh (point 

oi highest production) has fallen in April even year for the 

last thirteen years, with the exception of 1906 and 1909, 

when it fell in May. This date is somewhat earlier in the 

southern states than in the northern, "The lay in Ten- 
nessee and Kentucky is from December until April. In 
March and April, southern Ohio and Missouri stoeks appear 

on the market, helped alone by Texas, southern Missouri, 
and southern Kansas. In the later spring, northern Kansas, 
Iowa. Indiana. Illinois, and the Central States generally have 
their heavy producing season, and it is when this oeenrs that 

eggs are best and most plentiful. Minnesota and Michigan, 

with a still later season, help out somewhat when the supply 
of the Central States begins to fail, but the output oi both 
the southern and northern egg belt is far from adequate to 

supply the demands of the widespread consuming public.** 2 

The poultry season begins in August and lasts until about 
the first o\ January. In July and August there are nsnalU 
quite heavy receipts of broilers, with the heavier roasting 

chickens coming later. The average number of pounds of 

all grades of poultry received eaeh month during the last 

1 Bulletin No. 101. 

i Pennington and Pieree, United States Department >>i kgrioulture, 1910 

V o:\r-book , 

\ 151) 



452 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

four years, at a western packing-house, is shown in Table 
XLVII which is put in graphic form in Figure 216. 

Table XLYI. — The Percentage of the National Egg Chop 
Produced Each Month. 

January . (i.6 

February 7.1 

March 12.4 

April 13.4 

May 13.3 

June 10.7 

July 9.6 

August . . . . . 8.6 

September 6.2 

October 4.2 

November 3.1 

December 4.3 

Table XLVII. — The Average Receipts of Poultry at a Western 

Packing-house for Each Month, Based on the Period 

1910-1919 Inclusive. 1 

Pounds. 

January 238,598 

February. ■ 175,689 

March 168,159 

April . . 125,920 

May 212,554 

June 258,196 

July 286,472 

August 435,519 

September 505,173 

October 638,850 

November 725,332 

December 639,088 

It must be understood that these seasons are longer and 
are hardly so clearly defined as the seasons for strawberries 
and vegetables. They are sufficiently marked, however, 
so that during the egg season practically the whole force 
at a packing establishment is employed in packing eggs. 
The transition from the egg season to the poultry season is 
somewhat gradual, but in October and November the whole 
force is busy packing poultry. 

This discussion, of course, applies to the general condition. 
Both eggs and poultry may be and are produced out of season. 

1 Courtesy of Seymour Packing Company, Topeka, Kansas. 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 



458 



Some of the specialized poultry farms east and west make a 
practice of furnishing poultry products out of season and very 



Fig. 215 































13 


























































12 

X 

1- 


























































o 

s 11 

X 

o 


























































111 

Q 

gio 

Q 


























































O 

CSL 

a. 

a. 9 
O 
or 
o 

o 

2 8 

_J 
< 

z 
o 

1- 

z 7 

UJ 










































































































































































1- 

H 
Z 


























































LU 

u 

^ 5 
a. 


























































4 


























































3 



























































FEB. MAR. APR. 



JUNE JULY AUG. 



OCT. NOV. DEC. 



A graphic presentation of Table XLVI. 



454 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



many general farms secure a few eggs during the winter, 
and with a little care and attention may get more. As 



Fig. 216 

































700 
















































































































600 
















































































































300 
















































































































4.O0 


















































































s 

r 




























§ 


300 


























k. 

n 




























ft 




























L 

<r 

in 




























O 

r 


20O 


























h- 




























> 




























b 




























n° 


IOO 



























Jah. Teb. Mar. Apr May JunE July Aug. Sept. Oc-t. nov Pec. €» 
A graphic presentation of Table XLVII. 



previously noted, however, farmers specializing on out-of- 
season broilers and eggs bear much the same relation to the 
general production of poultry that truck gardeners who raise 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 455 

radishes, lettuce, and tomatoes under glass bear to the 
general production of vegetables. Fresh winter eggs, like 
fresh winter strawberries, are out of season products and 
should be paid for as such. For most persons, the straw- 
berries eaten in winter must be preserved by canning and 
saved over from the previous season. The eggs eaten out 
of season by most of the consuming public must also be 
preserved, usually in cold storage. 

The View-point of Preparation. — The preparation of a prod- 
uct depends upon the purpose for which it is intended. As 
was pointed out in the first chapter, there are numerous 
channels through which poultry and eggs may reach the 
consumer. In general, however, both products may be 
designated for our present purpose as intended for imme- 
diate or for future consumption. Immediate consumption 
refers to those products which are delivered to the actual 
consumer by the producer without the aid of any interme- 
diate agency. This means retailing by the producer, unless 
the producer is also the consumer, and is usually referred to 
as "private trade." When the products are to reach the 
consumer by any channel less direct, they must be considered 
as intended for future consumption. 

In any discussion of proper methods of preparing poultry 
products for consumption in those sections where production 
is greater than consumption, the producer should have two 
points clearly in mind: (1) the possible distance of the con- 
sumer from the place of production and (2) the time that 
may elapse before consumption. It is the quality of the goods 
when they reach the table of the consumer, not when first 
produced, that quickens or depresses consumption and has a 
marked influence upon the price paid the producer. 1 

1 It is not within the province of this work to discuss marketing save 
in so far as an understanding of marketing conditions affects the prepara- 
tion of the products. It may sometimes appear to the producer, however, that 
as his products are likely to be marketed in a distant city after months 
in cold storage, his pains in preparing poultry or eggs for consumption 
are likely to be wasted. If his efforts are not spoiled by the blunder or 
carelessness of some middleman, it is the middleman who receives the 
added profit. 

Under the present systems of marketing farm products, this is undoubtedly 
frequently true for all classes of goods. With the growth of the poultry- 



456 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

PREPARING POULTRY. 

Most of the poultry produced on general farms is sold 
alive and is prepared for consumption by the packer. The 
tendency appears to be for home killing for general consump- 
tion to be less and less practised and for the preparation to 
be made by some one other than the producer. In some cases, 
however, home preparation is profitable and for private 
trade is usually necessary. It consists of dressing and pack- 
ing if intended for general consumption, and may consist 
of dressing, packing, trussing, and, infrequently, boning 
if intended for private trade. 

Dressing. — A fowl is said to be "dressed" when it has been 
killed and plucked. For convenience, the operations inci- 
dent to dressing will be discussed under the topics of (1) 
killing, (2) bleeding, (3) picking, and (4) cooling and shaping. 
If any part of the process is not carefully and thoroughly 
done, deterioration of the product follows promptly. The 
function of dressing is preservation, or rendering the poultry 
less perishable, as well as putting it in edible form. 

Before the actual dressing operations are begun, the birds 
should be kept from all feed for twenty-four hours, allowing, 
however, a liberal supply of fresh water. This will serve to 
empty the crop of all food. A full crop not only means wasted 
feed, or selling the feed at the rate per pound received for 
the carcass, but that spoilage will set in in the vicinity of the 
crop very much quicker than it ordinarily would or than 
it will in other parts of the body. The intestines will also 
be partially emptied, which will generally preclude post- 
mortem defecations caused by handling, and which frequently 
soil an otherwise attractive carcass. 



packing industry on the one hand and cooperative marketing associations 
on the other, this, however, is becoming less true. The real packer needs 
and pays for the very best products he can get, and takes care that they 
do not deteriorate in his care. In cooperative marketing, the relation 
between the producer and consumer is made closer, and any benefit derived 
from marketing superior goods reverts at once to the producer. 

In a broad way, however, the statement made above is true even at the 
present time, and the better the products, the wider will be the consumption 
and the higher will be the price level. 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 



457 



Killing. — The method of killing will depend upon the des- 
tiny of the bird. If it is for home consumption, the simplest 
way is by dislocating the head. With this there is no external 




External view of head and neck, showing position of veins. (Courtesy 
of Bureau of Chemistry.) 

bleeding. The blood collects in the pocket formed inside 
the skin and between the head and the end of the neck. While 
this method is used commercially in England, it is not in 
general use in this country because it is thought that the 



458 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

bleeding is not thorough enough to make the birds keep well, 
and further, it does not fit in with the rest of the dressing 
operations, as practised commercially. 

For home use it is convenient because there is no spattering 
of blood. The bird may be held until the spasmodic actions 
of the muscles have stopped, instead of allowing the fowl to 
flop about, bruising the flesh. The bleeding is probably more 
complete than with the old-fashioned methods of wringing 
the neck or chopping off the head, in both cases bruising the 
bloodvessels and exposing them to the clotting action of 
the air, and thereby checking free bleeding. 

For private trade where scalding is practised, the killing 
is done by severing the principal bloodvessels of the neck 
(,see Figure 217) and causing the bird to die by bleeding. 

In commercial dressing where dry picking is practised, 
the birds are killed by "sticking," by which is meant the 
piercing of the brain with a small-bladed knife, for the 
double purpose of killing the bird and at the same time so 
paralyzing the feather muscles that dry picking is possible. 

Sticking may be accomplished " by running the knife under 
the eye at such an angle that its point will touch the skull 
midway between the eyes and a little behind them," 1 or 
" by placing the knife about hah'- way down the groove in the 
roof of the chicken's mouth, and then thrusting it up until 
the knife reaches the top of the skull." 2 These two ways 
of sticking are referred to as " outside" and " inside" sticking, 
respectively. In both cases the point of the knife should 
be moved about a little after it is thrust home, in order to 
destroy enough brain tissue to loosen the feathers thoroughly. 

Bleeding. — Pennington and Betts 3 report that fully 30 
per cent, of the poultry received in the Xew York market 
is incompletely bled. "Much of it is so badly bled that 
it results in a loss of from two to five cents a pound, as com- 
pared with the corresponding carcasses which are well bled 
and in good order. Aside from the bad appearance of 
incompletely bled chickens, their keeping properties are 

1 Pennington and Betts, Bureau of Chemistry Circular Xo> 61. 

2 Ibid. 

1 Bureau of Chemistry Circular Xo. 61. 



Fig. '218 




CORRECT CUT 

CORRECT CUT 

ROOF° E F MOUTH ANGLE OF JAW 



EYE 



EYE 



ND OF BEAK 




NOSTRIL 



Lower jaw removed, showing position of veins anatomy of skull, and 
location of cut. (Courtesy of Bureau of Chemistry.) 



Fig. 219 




Correct grasp of head at angle of jaw and position of small knife when 
cutting vein. (Courtesy of Bureau of Chemistry.) 



460 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

very inferior. The flesh loses its firmness sooner; its flavor 
is not so good ; the odor of stale flesh and finally of putrefac- 
tion comes sooner, and in every way the product is more 
perishable. 

"A very large proportion of the unsightly poultry in our 
markets, aside from the rubbing and tearing of skins, is 
caused by an incomplete removal of the blood. This is 
evidenced by red dots which frequently occur where the 
feathers have been removed, especially over the thighs and 
wings; or by small veins which are seen over the breast and 
in the angles of the wings, or larger veins which mar the 
appearance of the neck. Generally it is the neck which shows 
most plainly the presence of blood in the veins, or that a 
wrong method has been used in an attempt to empty them. 
The neck is the first part to discolor, becoming first red, 
then bluish red or purple, and finally green as aging pro- 
gresses. . . . Not only are the results of bad bleeding 
observed in certain parts of the body, but the clear, bright 
color of the flesh . . . is never at its best unless the 
blood has been completely drained out." 1 

In dislocating the head and in killing by severing the 
main bloodvessels of the neck, both killing and bleeding 
are accomplished in one operation. When killing is accom- 
plished by sticking, the bleeding should be done either before 
or after sticking, each way having its advocates. 

Whether done before or after sticking, or with birds 
intended for scalding without sticking, great care must be 
taken, until skill makes care unnecessary, to sever the veins 
at their point of joining, as shown in Figure 218. Just the 
location of these veins can only be learned by a careful 
first-hand study of the head and neck of the fowl itself. 

The best knife to use, according to Pennington and Betts, 2 
is one "which is not more than two inches long, one-fourth 
inch wide, with a thin, flat handle, a sharp point, and a 
straight cutting-edge." 

Picking. — There are two methods of picking (plucking) in 
general use, known as "scald picking" and "dry picking." 

1 Bureau of Chemistry Circular No. 61. 2 Ibid. 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 461 

If the birds are being dressed for immediate consumption 
and no use is to be made of the feathers, chickens may be 
scalded and the feathers easily plucked. If reasonable care is 
taken not to cook the skin, this is both an easy and reliable 
method. Yellow-skinned birds present a better appearance 
after scalding than after dry picking if the work has been 
properly done, because it brings out the color better. Ducks 
must be scalded or steamed, because no means of sticking 
them so as to loosen the feathers has been devised. Imme- 
diately after scalding, the bird should be plunged in cold 
water. This stops the cooking action of the hot water and 
renders the bird plumper in appearance. 

If the consumption of the bird is to be delayed for any 
reason, as by shipping, storing, or even awaiting sale in a 
retail store, it should be dry picked. Even the most careful 
scalding destroys the delicate but very important cuticle 
that covers the skin. This cuticle is the fowl's defense against 
the invasion of microorganisms of all sorts, and if destroyed 
during the dressing process, putrefactive bacteria quickly 
gain entrance to the carcass and begin their work of decom- 
position. 

Successful dry picking depends upon the proper sticking 
of the fowl, which loosens the feathers by paralyzing the 
control muscles of the feathers. If this is successfully 
accomplished, for a short time, the feathers may be re- 
moved with as much ease as if the bird had been scalded. 
The cuticle is left uninjured and the carcass will stand 
holding, shipping, or freezing very much better than when 
scalded. 

There are three ways of dry picking, known as string 
picking, bench picking, and frame picking, which is a com- 
bination of the first two. In the first, the legs are caught 
in a loop or shackle, and the bird hangs head downward. 
After sticking, a weighted bloodcup is attached to the fowl's 
mouth, which helps to hold it steady. 

With bench picking, a bench or table is used, as shown in 
Figure 221. The head of the bird is held by a hook over 
a hole in the bench, so that the blood may run down into 



462 



poultry production 



a bucket below. The feet are held by a U-shaped shackle. 
fastened by a rope passing over a pulley, which suspends 8 
weiffht. 




W r - ~ 



• g picking in .. •- • - shinent. [Courtesy of (ova 

State Col 



- . 




- . :r;. packing-house. Notice men y:;kiog on 

; . g on strings. The bir^ an takes d 

- : n - c-s Seymour Psei:Ir.c 

- 



PREPARING POl'l TRY PRODUCTS 403 

With frame picking, the head is held exactly as in bench 
picking, but the shackle holding the feet, comes from 

above and is weighted in such a way as to hold the bird's 
body up off the bench, thus giving the benefit o( both 
methods. 

The question o( the relative merits of these methods 
of dry picking is one upon which packers and investigators 
are not agreed among themselves. 'The bench has grown 
in popularity rapidly, because somewhat faster work can 
be done on it than on the string, and the feathers more 
easily sorted and saved. The bird is seldom smeared with 
blood, as in the case o( string picking. On the other hand. 
the government investigators have found that even when the 
bench is padded, the carcass is more or less bruised during 
the convulsions that follow the sticking and in Hopping a 
bird over on its breast to pick its back. It is claimed that 
these bruises are not noticeable at tirst. but that if the 
carcass is held or stored they become breeding places o( 
bacteria which bring about deterioration. Some of the 
largest packers in the country, however, whose pack of 
poultry stands at the very top for quality, use the bench 
method. With string picking, there is, of course, little chance 
for bruising, though the picker and the carcass are often 
covered with blood, and the method does not appear so 
sanitary. In just how far the frame picking will displace the 
other two. remains to be seen. 

With either method, the greatest care must be used not 
to tear or even scuff the skin. In the superficial muscles of the 
breast taken from a carcass whose skin was neither torn nor 
rubbed there are very few bacteria. In both the superficial 
and deep breast muscles of a fowl with a torn or even a 
rubbed skin, such numbers of bacteria will be found within 
twenty-four hours, that a marked change in the chemical 
composition will already have taken place. 

In a well-organized commercial picking room the work of 
picking is divided between roughers and pinners. The 
roughers bleed and brain the bird and remove the wing, tail, 
and larger body feathers. The pinners finish the plucking, 
carefully removing all pin feathers. 



464 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

Singeing is not practised when dressing for future eon- 
sumption, because it tends to soften the skin and injure 
the keeping qualities 

Precooling. — It is absolutely necessary that animal heat 
be allowed to pass out of a dressed bird as soon as pos- 
sible after it is killed. Bacterial action begins at once. 
While cooling does not entirely stop it, it does greatly retard 
it. There are two methods of cooling — dry and wet. When 
dry cooling is employed, the carcass is simply placed in cold 
air until the animal heat has all escaped. While it is the 
common practice to freeze poultry that is to be held any 
time, care must be taken that freezing does not occur during 
the cooling process. If it does occur the carcass will not cool 
out properly. The reason for this is that freezing hardens 
the outside of the carcass, causing it to act as insulation. 
And further, it congeals the moisture near the surface and 
stops the flow of the juices of the body. The juices of the 
bird continue to flow from one part of the body to another 
for a considerable time after the bird is killed, especially if 
one part of the body is colder than another. This affords an 
opportunity for the internal animal heat to escape at the 
surface. It is well known among practical packers that with 
a bird placed in too cold a temperature immediately after 
dressing, the heat is held within long enough to give the 
putrefactive bacteria a chance to develop to a sufficient 
extent to give the bird an offensive flavor when cooked. 

The best cooling temperature is between 30° and 35° F. 
To determine when a carcass is cool enough for freezing, 
insert a small stemmed thermometer into the vent. It should 
show a temperature of not more than 35° F. The time 
necessary for cooling will vary with the size of the carcass. 

Wet cooling is frequently resorted to. As soon as the fowl 
is dressed it is plunged into ice-water. This removes the heat 
effectively, but Pennington 1 has found that 4 per cent, of 
the protein in chicken flesh will dissolve out in an hour. For 
every ounce of protein dissolved 4.3 ounces of water are 
absorbed. The practice is to be discouraged, and is coming 

1 Address before Missouri Carlot Shippers of Poultry. Kansas City, 1912. 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 



465 



to be discriminated against. The soaked skin, like the scalded 
skin, gives entrance to injurious bacteria. Deterioration in 
taste and appearance soon follows. 

The matter of precooling both dressed poultry and eggs 
before shipment by parcels post to city customers should be 
carefully looked after. If a refrigerator is not available, the 
products should be hung down the well in an open bucket, 
unwrapped, until thoroughly cool. If well cooled before 

Fig. 222 




Poultry cooling rack holding ISO birds. (Courtesy of Bureau of 
Chemistry.) 



wrapping, they will arrive at their destination in much better 
condition. This matter has not received the emphasis it 
should. 

Faults in Dressed Birds. — At the central packing plants, 
birds are discriminated against for the following reasons. 
When the producer markets his own products he can elimi- 
nate each of these defects : 

1. The birds are not properly finished. If two birds both 
weigh 4 lbs., but one is plump, well filled, and thick-fleshed, 
30 



466 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

while the other is somewhat gangling and scrawny through- 
out, the former will outsell the latter every time. The second 
bird should never be marketed until enough flesh has been 
put on to make him round out. 

2. Birds such as were just described are found packed in 
the same package. The result is invariably that the package 
goes at a price much nearer that paid for the poorer quality 
than for the better quality. Poor quality drags down the 
price much more than good quality can pull it up. Much 
more will be realized if the good birds are packed together 
and the inferior ones together. When the inferior ones are 
all together they gain the advantage that comes from 
uniformity and are not at the disadvantage of being in direct 
comparison with better goods. 

3. Birds are not picked clean. Too many feathers are 
left on the neck or a garter or ring of feathers is left around 
the hock-joint. Often the wings are not picked clean. At 
times the whole body of the bird must be gone over to remove 
feathers or pin-feathers. Careful work in this particular 
greatly adds to the appearance and salability of the product. 

4. Birds often reach the grader with some food in their 
crops. If stored in this condition the flesh around the crop 
soon turns dark green. It is necessary to remove the contents 
of the crop. To do this one must make an incision under the 
shoulder where it will show least. A bird that has had the 
contents of the crop removed in this way is on a par with a 
torn bird, as far as keeping qualities are concerned. Birds 
properly starved need have no food in the crop. 

5. Fowls are frequently received with voidings protruding 
from the vent. With a little manipulation the intestines 
for some distance back from the vent may be emptied of 
their contents and the contamination of the other birds in 
the box avoided. 

6. Many birds that are not actually torn have the skin 
barked or scuffed. Abrasions of the skin of whatever sort 
result in poor keeping quality. 

7. The chickens are not properly bled, as evidenced by the 
red feather follicles or prominent bloodvessels in any part 
of the body, followed usually by a purplish discoloration on 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 467 

the neck and hips particularly, and frequently extending 
over the whole body. 

Loss of Weight in Dressing. — The dressing percentage of 
the fowl is not of as much importance as in the larger meat- 
producine: animals. The skill of the cattle buyer, in judging 
the dressing percentage of animals he buys, often makes the 
difference between the profit and loss. It should be noted, 
however, that with poultry, dressing does not refer to the 
removal of anything except the blood and feathers. The 
dressing percentage with steers takes into account the re- 
moval of all unmarketable parts. The trussing percentage 
with poultry is more nearly comparable to the dressing per- 
centage with the larger animals. 

With poultry the individuals are so small and they are 
handled commercially in such large numbers that an average 
loss of about 10 per cent is usually assumed by the packers 
for birds in good condition, during the months of January 
to June inclusive. The shrinkage of dressing for the balance 
of the year is approximately as follows: July, 12 per cent; 
August, 12 per cent; September, 13 per cent; October, 
14 per cent; November, 14 per cent; and December, 12 
per cent. It is probable, as the standard breeds become 
more generally introduced among general farmers, that 
some discriminations in price will be made in favor of those 
breeds which dress out with the least loss, other qualities 
being equal. 

In the following tables 1 are given a comparison of the dress- 
ing and trussing percentages of young and old males and 
females and of several of the common breeds and varieties. 

Lee 2 found, as the result of extended observations of milk- 
fed poultry, that the dressing percentage of the following 
classes were, respectively, hens 85.6 per cent, roosters 85.3 
per cent, springs 87.9 per cent, and broilers 85.7 per cent. 

Special Dressings. — Capons should be dressed capon style. 
By this is meant the style that has become standard and 
which requires that the feathers be allowed to remain on a con- 
siderable portion of the bird. The feathers should be left on 

1 Stoneburn, Storrs Bulletin 38. 

2 Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 140. 



468 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



Table XLVIII. — Comparative Dressing and Trussing Percentages. 



No. of 
birds. 



Live 
weight. 





Dress- 


Dressed 


ing, 


weight. . 


per et. 



Truss- 
Trussed I ing, 
weight. I per ct. 



Cocks 
Cockerels 
Hens 
Pullets . 



Total 



18 i 127.0 ' 117.9 
278 1773.0 1577.5 
201 1195.0 1103.4 



47 



344 



261.1 



240.0 



3357.0 3038.8 



92.2 
89.0 
92.3 
91.9 



90.6 



97.8 

1312.0 

906.3 

193.7 



2509 . 6 



76.6 
74.0 
75.8 
74.2 



74.8 



Barred Plymouth Rock 187 

White Plymouth Rock 125 

White Wyandottes . 103 

Rhode Island Reds . 18 

Black Langshan . . 32 
S. C. White Leghorn . j 22 

R. C. Brown Leghorn 35 



1199.9 
859.1 
618.2 
109.7 
200.5 
88.3 
129.6 



1090.8 


90.9 


779.4 


90.8 


558.3 


90.4 


98.0 


89.3 


182.7 


90.1 


78.0 


88.3 


116.0 


89.5 



910.4 

644.9 

460.8 

80.2 

131.4 

62.1 

90.4 



75.9 
75.0 
74.6 
73.1 
75.5 
70.3 
69.8 



Table XLIX. 



-Showing Comparative Percentage Weight of the 
Different Parts of the Carcass. 1 





White 


White 


White 


White 


Light 


Light 


Barred 


Barred 




Wyan- 


Wyan- 


Leg- 


Leg- 


Brah- 


Brah- 


Rock 


Rock 




dotte 


dotte 


horn 


horn 


ma 


ma 


Cock- 


Pull- 




Cocks. 


Pullets. 


Cocks. 


Pullets. 


Cocks. 


Pullets. 


erels. 


ets. 


1. Blood . . . 


3.57 


3.20 


5.40 


5.70 


5.11 


4.43 


4.02 


4.26 


2. Feathers 


8.97 


6.07 


8.64 


8.46 


9.11 


9.38 


8.36 


7.87 


3. Intestines 2 . 


6.78 


6.62 


10.13 


9.91 


11.11 


10.16 


9.91 


8.52 


4. Head and feet . 


7.78 


7.75 


7.90 


6.30 


6.88 


6.77 


7.43 


6.56 


5. Bones of body 3 


7.42 


6.29 


6.86 


6.50 


6.66 


6.25 


7.43 


7.87 


6. Giblets« . . 


4.49 


4.64 


4.32 


4.46 


8.00 


8.07 


7.74 


7.54 


7. Flesh . . . 


60.99 


65.45 


56.75 


58.67 


53.13 


54.94 


55.11 


57.38 


Total . . . 


100.00 


100.00 
12 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


No. of chicks . 


16 


20 


12 


4 


3 


2 


6 


Avg. live weight . 


5.46 


4.53 


3.36 


2.54 


4.50 


3.84 


3.23 


3.05 



1 Mairs, Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 87. 

2 Does not include giblets. 

3 Does not include bones of head and feet. 

4 Heart, liver, and gizzard. 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 469 

the upper half of the neck. The breast and body should be 
plucked clean up to the large tail feathers. Pick the entire 
underside of the wing; pick the upper part of the wing, 
from the shoulder to the first joint. Leave the rest of the 

Fig. 223 




A pair of properly dressed capons. 



wing feathers, which include the primary and secondary 
feathers, and a garter of feathers about the hocks. 

Guineas should not be picked. Simply dislocate the head 
and cool out thoroughly. Pigeons should have the head 
dislocated and the feathers left on. Squabs (young pigeons) 



470 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

should be dry-picked and graded to size. Turkeys and ducks 
should be picked clean except where special markets desire 
it otherwise. 

Geese should be picked clean. They should weigh 10 
pounds or over and be of good quality. Under that weight 
they are likely to be very red-skinned or dark-colored when 
dressed. Geese should be packed as soon as properly cooled. 
If left exposed to the air they take on an oily and disagreeable 
appearance. 

Different classes of chickens are frequently dressed in 
some special style, as leaving certain of the wing feathers 
on fowl. Such a means of dressing acts as a means of quick 
identification of certain classes of fowl not readily distin- 
guished from other classes by the unskilled purchaser. 

Feathers. — A by-product of dressing any class of poultry 
is feathers. There is ready market for all prime feathers 
that have been properly cared for. As will be seen by the 
quotations given below, white feathers are by far the most 
valuable. They should therefore be kept from the colored 
feathers, and wing and tail feathers should be kept from the 
body feathers and may be sacked at once. Body feathers 
should be placed in bins to dry and forked over every few 
days to keep them from matting. Duck and geese feathers 
bring a much higher price than the other classes. 

Comparative Prices per Pound on the Different Classes of Feathers. 

Goose .... Pure white feathers $0.80 

Good average white .70 

Largely gray .60 

Largely gray, scalded .40 to .45 

Long goose-quills .10 

Duck Pure white feathers .60 

Stained and scalded white . . . . . 40 to . 50 

Dark 38 to . 40 

Dark, scalded .35 

Chicken. ..Body, dry picked, all white .... .25 

Body, dry picked, dark .06 

Damp, scalded, musty or very quilly . . 02 to . 02^ 

Hackles (no quills) .15 

Rooster tails, long fancy (free from stiff 

feathers) 1.00 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 



471 



Turkey. . .Body, dry picked, all white .... .60 

Body, dry picked, dark .10 

Tails, dark, no skirts 1 .30 

Wings, dark, no shorts .12 

Tails, wings and pointers, 2 no shorts . .10 

Wings and pointers .06 

Pointers, dark .02 

Shorts and skirts, free of body ... .05 



Fig. 224 



H a> l-f-UNDRAWM (236) 



3 WIRE DRAWN (68,864) 



3 BOSTON DRAWN (23,284) 
■iHaE^^^^^B FULL DRAWN (77,58 



UNDRAWN (10,790) 
3 WIRE DRAWN (82,648) 
Z] BOSTON DRAWN (341,650) 



^FULL DRAWN (9,623,000) 



UNDRAWN (168,170) 
~] WIRE DRAWN (5,481,640) 

BOSTON DRAWN (34,258,000) 




Showing the comparative increase in bacteria in the wall of the abdominal 
cavity after four different methods of dressing. 3 



Rate of Decomposition of Drawn and Undrawn Poultry. — 
In studying the comparative rate of decomposition in un- 



1 Saddle feathers. 



2 Primary wing feathers. 



3 Bureau of Chemistry Circular No. 10. 



472 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

drawn poultry and poultry that had been drawn by three 
different methods, Pennington, Witmer, and Pierce 1 found 
that undrawn poultry decomposed more slowly than that 
which has been either wholly or partially drawn. 

The three methods of drawing studied, as described by 
them, are "full drawn," "wire drawn," and "Boston drawn," 
as follows: 

"For the 'full drawn' specimens the body cavity was 
opened by a transverse cut across the abdomen, and the 
vent was removed by cutting around it. The head was cut 
off and the intestines and viscera completely removed. 
The heart, liver, and cleaned gizzard, as well as the excess 
body fat, were put back into the body cavity. The shanks 
and feet were removed and the hocks were thrust through 
the opening in the abdomen and the vent. 

' Wire' drawing consists in pulling out a loop of intestine 
by inserting the finger through the vent; cutting the loop, 
and drawing out the gut by careful traction until it breaks 
at the gizzard. The vent of a bird so drawn presents a normal 
appearance; the only indication of drawing is the collapsed 
abdomen. 

"The 'Boston' drawing is a modification of the 'wire' in 
that a circular incision is ihade around the vent and the 
intestines pulled through until rupture occurs at the gizzard. 
The undrawn fowls were shipped with heads and feet on, 
and had no incisions except for bleeding and braining. 

"The 'full-drawn' poultry decomposed most rapidly, 
while the 'wire drawn' and 'Boston drawn' stood midway 
between the undrawn and full drawn in speed of decom- 
position. Of the latter, the wire drawn, which approached 
the undrawn condition most nearly, was the least objec- 
tionable." 

The usual objection to undrawn poultry is that the flesh is 
likely to be contaminated from the intestines. A graphic 
representation of the comparative bacterial infection of the 
abdominal wall in the four methods of dressing, at the 
packers, wholesalers, and retailers, is shown in Figure 224. 

1 Bureau of Chemistry Circular No. 10. 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 473 

Grading. — Grading can hardly be spoken of as one of the 
really necessary steps in preparing poultry for consumption. 
In commerce, however, uniformity is so universally demanded 
by middlemen and by consumers who purchase more than a 
single carcass, that it has become an essential of successful 
marketing and for practical purposes may be considered 
among the necessary operations in preparing the products 
for consumption. 

Market Classification of Chickens. — Grades and classes vary 
somewhat in different parts of the country and with different 
markets. The classification here given is that used by the 
Seymour Packing Company of Kansas, the largest exclusive 
poultry packers in the United States. 

The live birds are classified according to sex, size, age, or 
hardness of bone, into (1) broilers, (2) springs, (3) fowl, (4) 
stags, (5) capons, (6) slips, (7) roosters. 

(1) A broiler is a young chicken of either sex weighing 
two pounds or under. (2) A spring is a young, soft-boned 
bird of either sex that weighs over two pounds. (3) A fowl 
is a hen (female over one year old), or a pullet that shows too 
much hardness in the breast bone (keel) to be classed as a 
spring. (4) Stags are cockerels that exhibit too much hard- 
ness of bone, development of spurs or comb to be classed 
as springs, but not enough to be classed as roosters. (5) 
Capons are cleanly castrated male birds. (6) Slips are birds 
upon which the operation of castration was not entirely 
successful. (7) Roosters are cocks (male birds over one year 
old). 

Classification of Other Live Poultry. — Turkeys are classified 
as young (under one year) and old (over one year) toms, 
young and old hens. Ducks are usually marketed as green 
(young) roasting ducks. Geese are classified as young and 
old, one year the dividing point. 

Grades of Dressed Chickens. — The same terms do not al- 
always refer to the same weights of live chickens as they do 
when the birds are dressed. The following are the grades 
used by Seymour Packing Company. While this exact 
classification will not hold in every section, it is given as 
representative of the various grades under which dressed 



474 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

chickens are marketed. The weights are for a dozen birds 
instead of one, as in the case of the live-weight classification. 

Broilers 24 pounds and under / I s } grade 

\ 2d grade 

Broilers 25 to 29 pounds ( £? grade 

(_ 2d grade 

Chickens 30 to 35 pounds ( If grade 

( 2d grade 

Chickens 36to42pounds(^ tgrade 

{ 2d grade 

Roasters 43 to 48 pounds ( If grade 

(_ 2d grade 

Roasters 49 pounds and up ( If grade 

{ 2d grade 

XX Springs unworthy to be placed in the first or second grade, all 
weights. 

XXX Springs unworthy to grade XX, all weights. 

All the foregoing come out of the broilers and springs of 
the live classification. 

Fowl 30to35pounds(^ tgrade 

\ 2d grade 

Fowl 36 to 42 pounds ( If grade 

\ 2d grade 

Fowl 43 to 48 pounds ( If grade 

\ 2d grade 

Fowl 49 pounds and up f l 8 } grade 

{ 2d grade 
Small fowl under 30 pounds. 

XX Fowl unworthy to be placed in the first or second grade, all 
weights. 

XXX Fowl unworthy to be placed in grade XX, all weights. 

The foregoing are the fowl of the live-weight classification. 

C Roasters, 42 pounds and under. 
C Roasters, 43 to 48 pounds. 
C Roasters, 49 pounds and up. 

The above are the stags of the live-weight classification. 

Light capons under 72 pounds. 
Heavy capons over 72 pounds. 
Slips, mixed weights. 
Old roosters, mixed weights. 

Torn birds, mixed weights. Chickens and fowls being packed sepa- 
rately. 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 475 

Packing. — In the broad sense, packing refers to all of the 
operations incident to preparing and preserving poultry for 
use as food. In a more restricted sense, it refers to wrapping 
it or placing it in suitable packages for shipment or storage. 

Heretofore barrels have been used almost entirely for 
packing poultry. For the better grades, boxes are now almost 
wholly used. These are generally made from what is known 
as white wood. Pine is cheaper, but it is likely to impart 
a piney flavor to the poultry if it remains long in the box. 
The boxes may be purchased knocked down (K. D.). The 
lumber is sawed to the exact size desired and comes in bun- 
dles of 25 parts each. Special cement-coated 5d or 6d box 
nails are used in making up the boxes, as ordinary nails 
rust if the box is placed in a refrigerator. 

At present, in order to obtain the highest price and sell 
to the best advantage, all classes and grades of poultry, 
with the exception of culls unworthy to be graded, torn 
birds, and old roosters which are packed in barrels, should 
be packed one dozen to the box. Care should be taken not 
to put the birds into the boxes too loosely; that is, the box- 
should not be too large. It is better to crowd the birds into 
the boxes, for when they fit snugly they look plumper when 
the box is opened. 

There are very many styles of packing poultry, almost 
as many as there are different lines of trade. The following 
standard styles are taken from the "Poultry Packers' 
Guide:" 1 

1. Standard Broiler. — Wrap heads; line box with parch- 
ment paper. Pack one dozen birds to the box, six birds on 
each side with feet extended past the centre of the box. The 
breasts should be up, heads and feet hidden. The head is 
packed under and to the side of the bird it belongs to, and the 
feet crossed with those of the opposite bird, and tucked under 
the opposite bird. Be careful not to draw out the legs too far 
so that the bird will lose its plump appearance. 

2. Standard Export. — Pack in single layer boxes. Line 
the boxes with parchment paper. Heads not wrapped. Pack 

1 Pool Publishing Company, Mason City, Iowa. 



476 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



six birds with breasts up; six birds with backs up; heads 
brought forward and turned sideways so that the eyes show. 
A box packed in this style has the same appearance on both 
top and bottom. 

3. Standard Roaster Style. — All heavy fowl and turkeys 
should be packed in this style. Some capons are also packed 
in this style. Boxes lined with parchment paper. Heads 
wrapped. Pack twelve birds to the box in two layers. Parch- 
ment paper between layers. Bottom layer heads and feet 
up. Top layer heads and feet down. Both layers packed 

Fig. 225 




Box of well-dressed roasters. 



on both sides and butts locked. To accomplish this three 
birds are packed with breasts one way and three with breasts 
the opposite way. 

4. Single Layer Roaster Style. — Is used when marketing 
extra-fine stock for a particular customer. Arrange as in 
upper layer of the Standard Roaster Style, but pack in a 
single layer. 

5. Standard Duck Style. — Is used for both ducks and 
geese. Pack in two layers, twelve to the box. Line boxes 
with parchment paper. Wrap heads. Parchment paper 
between layers. Lower layer breasts down, feet and heads up. 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 477 

Upper layer breasts up, heads and feet down. Both layers 
packed butt to butt. 

G. Standard Capon Style. — Use deep box. Twelve to the 
box in two layers. Line box. Wrap heads. Parchment 
paper between layers. Lower layer, breasts down, heads 
and feet up. Upper layer, breasts up and heads and feet 
down. Legs crossed with those of the opposite and feet buried. 

Stencilling. — If one is marketing a superior product it is 
decidedly advantageous to the name of the producer to have 
his name neatly stencilled on the box. In time one may gain 
a reputation for good goods and his products come into 
demand. This is particularly true if one comes in close 
touch with the consumer. If one deals through a jobber, 
he will probably prefer to place his own trade mark or name 
upon the goods. 

For each class of poultry there should be a corresponding 
number which should appear at the upper left hand corner 
of one end of the box. This tells the person selling the goods 
exactly what to find in the box. For instance, the number 
5 in the proper corner might indicate that the box con- 
tained fancy broilers weighing under 1| pounds apiece. The 
number 43 might indicate fancy spring chickens between 4 
and 5 pounds' weight. The figures representing the number 
of pounds net weight should always appear in the lower right- 
hand corner of the end of the box: 




The foregoing would indicate that there are in the box 12 
fancy spring chickens of roaster size and that they weigh 
54 pounds net, and are packed in Standard Roaster Style. 
Unless otherwise noted, it is always assumed that there are 
twelve birds in a box. This is all that is necessary if one is 
shipping to a jobber. It is the jobber's reputation that helps 
to sell the goods and, as before indicated, he places his own 
trade name or mark upon the box. If one is dealing directly 



478 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



with a retailer, however, one should give themselves the 
benefit of a reputation for high-class products. To do this, 
more extensive stencilling is advisable. 



43 


617 

White Bird Farm 

Fancy 

D. P. Roasters 


12 


62 


s 


54 



In the above-suggested stencilling the numbers 43 and 54 
appear as before. The number 62 represents the gross and 8 
the tare weights. The number 617 is a serial number by which 
any particular box may be recognized if any question is 
raised about it. It also aids in keeping track of the amount of 
business done. Fancy D. P. Roasters is the trade name by 
which the ordinary buyer will recognize them. D. P. means 
dry-picked. Aside from the farm name, there is no more 
necessary information on the second box than on the first. 
Giving full particulars, however, fosters confidence with the 
ordinary retail purchaser. At the same time, if for any 
reason the goods should be shipped to a wholesaler, the 
information he desires is there. If the number 48 should 
appear in place of 43, the wholesaler might know that he had 
12 Fancy Roasters between 4 and 5 pounds the same as 
in the above case, but that instead of being packed Standard 
Style, they are packed Single Layer Style. For the retail 
purchaser this w T ould make no difference. The class numbers 
may be arbitrarily chosen, or they may be those already 
in use in a given line of trade. 

Determining the Classification. — Late in the fall it becomes 
difficult to determine whether certain chickens belong among 
the springs or among the fowls. To determine whether a 
chicken should be graded among the fowl or roasters, press 
the rear end of the keel. If it is hard and unyielding it should 
be classed as a fowl. If soft and pliable, it goes with the 
roasters. 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 479 

The classification of dressed ducks may be gotten at by 
squeezing the windpipe between the thumb and forefinger. 
If it can be compressed and flattened with slight resistance, 
the duck is young. If it is solid like a whip cord, it is an old 
bird. 

Trussing. — For fancy family trade the producer frequently 
finds it profitable to go beyond the ordinary operations of 
dressing in the preparation of poultry for the consumer, and 
to truss the bird. Trussing refers specifically to fastening 
the legs or wings to the body, but is used here in the broader 
sense, including all of the common operations of preparing a 
roasting fowl for the oven. It includes singeing, pulling 
the tendons, removing the shanks, head and neck, wish-bone, 
and internal organs, and pinioning the wings and legs. Re- 
moving the internal organs is referred to as "drawing." 
Trussing should be resorted to only when the birds are 
intended for immediate consumption. A dressed bird with 
head wrapped ready for trussing is shown in Figure 226. 

Singeing. — Singeing refers to the removing by means of a 
flame the hair-like feathers (filoplumes) which cannot be 
removed in picking, whether the bird is dry picked or scalded. 
For this purpose, wood alcohol furnishes an excellent flame 
because it is smokeless and does not give the meat any taint 
or odor. The bird should be flamed only as much as is 
necessary to get rid of the filoplumes. Too much flaming 
will sear the skin and injure the appearance of the carcass. 

Removing the Neck. — To remove the neck, make an incision 
in the skin at the point on the back of the neck where it 
joins the body, as shown in Figure 227. Cut the skin along 
the dotted line, as shown in Figure 227, and then loosen the 
skin from the neck, as well as the gullet, crop, and wind- 
pipe, pulling the latter out from the body as far as possible 
before pulling them free. Then cut off the head, leaving the 
gullet and wind-pipe attached to the head, and loose neck 
skin attached to the carcass. 

Now slip the knife down close to the base of the neck, as 
shown in Figure 228. Cut it on both sides and then across 
the top. If the ligaments surrounding the neck are carefully 
cut it can be pulled off easily. 



480 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



Taking Out the Wish-bone. — Now place the bird on the 
rump, fold back the loose skin of the neck, scrape the wish- 
bone bare, and pass the knife-blade under it, as shown in 



Fig. 226 




A dressed bird with head wrapped ready for trussing. 
F. E. Mixa.) 



(Courtesy of 



Figure 229, cutting through the shoulder on both sides. The 

more thorough the scraping the easier it is to lift out the bone. 

A great many more slices of breast meat may be carved 

off without striking the bone when the wish-bone is out 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 



481 



of the way. This adds far more to the attractiveness of the 
bird than one would suppose before trying it. It also makes 
it possible to draw the bird without tearing. 



Fig. 227 




Starting to remove the neck. (Courtesy of F. E. Mixa.) 



Pulling the Tendons and Removing the Shanks. — The tendons 

which connect the muscles of the leg with the toes frequently 

annoy the consumer by getting between his teeth when he 

attempts to eat the drumstick. These may easily and quickly 

31 



482 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



be removed by making an incision in the shank, as is being- 
done in Figure 230, and passing the knife up and down as far 
as possible between the hock and the foot. In this incision 
slip a hook or bent nail and give a steady pull. The beginner 
will find it easier to pull the tendons one at a time. They 
are easily seen and separated. With a steady pull they will 
come out looking like long strings, as shown on the removed 
shank in Figure 230, leaving the drumstick more tender and 
palatable and fully as desirable as the other dark-meat 
sections of the fowl. 

Fig. 228 




Removing the neck. (Courtesy of F. E. Mixa.) 



After pulling the tendons the shank should be cut off at 
the hock-joint. If a half -inch of yellow shank skin, which is 
quite firmly attached to the bone, is left the meat of the drum- 
stick is not so likely to slide up the bone as it generally does 
in roasting. This makes the carcass appear more attractive 
on the table when roasted. It will be found, in marketing 
fancy poultry products, that an attractive appearance often 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 483 

makes a marked difference in the selling price. The appear- 
ance of the drumstick is shown at the right in Figure 231, 
when the shank is properly removed, and on the left when 
improperly removed, as is likely to be the case when the 
bone is cut by the use of shears or by forcing with a butcher 





Fig. 229 














XJJj 








.... 


" '"rfj^H^HP '.\ji 






w 


* IBM 


Hanipi 


§ .jam 


mk a 









Taking out the wish-bone. (Courtesy of F. E. Mixa.) 

knife, instead of simply cutting the ligaments that bind the 
two bones together at the joint. The latter would be proper 
in the case of a bird intended for frying. In this case it is 
desirable to have the meat slide up the bone, thereby leaving 
a handle for grasping the drumstick for eating. 



484 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 
Fig. 230 




Pulling the tendons and removing the shanks. (Courtesy of F. E. Mixa.) 

Fig. 231 




Showing a bird with properly and improperly removed shanks. (Courtesy 
of F. E. Mixa.) 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 



485 



Drawing and Trussing. — The bird should be drawn by 
first making an incision at the side of the vent and cutting 



Fig. 232 




Trussed for the roasting pan, legs tied. (Courtesy of F. E. Mixa.) 
Fig. 233 




Trussed for the roasting pan, legs slipped through incision in skin 
(Courtesy of Iowa State College. 

completely around it, making the smallest hole possible. 
Then insert the finger, loosen the intestines, and draw them 



486 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

out carefully, breaking them off at the gizzard. Then take 
a piece of broomstick or a chisel handle and push the gizzard 
out the opening made by the removal of the neck and wish- 
bone. This avoids the unsightly tearing which must occur 
when the gizzard is removed from behind. The oil sac 
should then be removed from the base of the tail. 

All that remains to put the bird in shape as an extra-fancy 
roasting bird is to fold the loose skin of the neck up over the 
back and lock the wings over it as shown in Figure 232. The 
drumsticks may be slipped through a couple of incisions 
made in the skin close to the tail as shown in Figure 233, or 
may be tied in place as shown in Figure 232. 

Fig. 234 




A case holding thirty dozen eggs is the wholesale commercial unit. If 
properly protected with excelsior before being covered, an egg case is a safe 
and efficient carrier whether the haul is over country roads or by rail. 
(Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.) 

PREPARING EGGS. 

An egg is among the most perishable of food products. 
It is never so desirable for consumption as when it is first 
laid. Its food value, flavor, and general attractiveness is 
greater then than at any time later. Aside from cooking and 
removing the shell, which are points of preparation for which 
the producer is not responsible, its preparation is complete. 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 487 

It is usual, however, for the producer and consumer to be 
removed from each other by a considerable distance. Some 
time must elapse after laying, under the most favorable 
conditions, and at any time of year, before the egg can reach 
the table of the consumer. During the season of heavy pro- 
duction very many of the eggs must be preserved, by means 
of refrigeration, for the season of low production. 

The producer's problem is to prepare the egg for preser- 
vation or, more accurately, to avoid those conditions which 
are responsible for the deterioration of the product during 
the time that must elapse between its production and 
consumption. 

What the Loss Is. — Every egg that grades below first-class 
represents an economic loss that increases as the grade 
lowers. 

These low grades are in a large measure responsible for the 
wide difference between the price paid to the producer and 
the price paid by the consumer. The price to consumer 
would tend to be lower, and the price to the producer would 
tend to be higher if the preventable loss was eliminated. 

Hastings, 1 after a comprehensive survey of the egg trade 
in this country, estimated the average annual preventable 
loss at 17 per cent (or $45,000,000), distributed as follows: 

Per cent 

Dirtiea 2.0 

Breakage 2.0 

Chick development 5.0 

Heated and shrunken 5.0 

Rotten eggs 2.5 

Mouldy and badly flavored eggs 0.5 

Total 17.0 

This did not take into account the curtailed consumption 
caused by poor quality. This estimate is based on the annual 
loss of which the most occurs during the warm summer 
months. 

Where the Loss Occurs. — Lamon and Opperman 2 found, as 
the result of extended observations in Kansas, that when the 

1 Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular No. 140. 2 Ibid., No. 160. 



488 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

total loss of clean, infertile eggs from the time of laying to 
their arrival at the packing-house during warm weather 
was 23.97 per cent of all eggs marketed, 15.5 per cent, or 
over two-thirds, of the loss was before the eggs arrived in 
town. 

In another test, also made in warm weather, where clean, 
fertile eggs were used, and the' total loss was 42.5 per cent 
of all eggs marketed, 29 per cent, or over two-thirds, of the 
loss was before the eggs arrived in town. 

Kinds and Causes of Deterioration. — Deterioration comes by 
shrinkage, liquefaction, germination, bacterial and mould 
infection, absorption of odors and stains. 

The most prolific sources of deterioration are heat, fertility, 
breakage, dampness, filthy surroundings, and the presence 
of strong penetrating odors. 

Shrinkage. — Shrinkage is caused by the evaporation of the 
moisture of the egg through the pores of the shell. The 
amount of shrinkage is noticed in candling by the size of the 
air cell. The rapidity with which it progresses depends upon 
the temperature in which the egg is kept, the ventilation and 
humidity, and the condition of the bloom. Cool temper- 
atures retard it while any injury to the bloom hastens it by 
opening the shell pores and allowing the easier escape of 
moisture. While keeping the eggs in a humid atmosphere, 
or^ restricted ventilation, would tend to check shrinkage, 
this cannot be resorted to, owing to the fact that moisture 
causes injuries that are more serious than shrinkage. If 
this were not the case, warehousemen could make the 
storage egg difficult of detection by keeping the cold rooms 
humid and without ventilation. 

Liquefaction. — When a new-laid raw egg is broken into a 
saucer the thick or viscous albumen is readily distinguishable 
from the thin or watery albumen. This distinction in the 
kinds of albumen becomes less marked as the egg becomes 
older, owing to the fact that the viscous albumen gradually 
loses its viscosity and becomes more liquid, beginning at 
the large end of the egg. This condition, which is noticed 
in what is known as the heated egg, is accentuated by heat, 
particularly if the egg is fertile. It is usually accompanied 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 489 

by a weakening of the yolk membrane, which makes such an 
egg difficult to poach or fry without the yolk breaking. Such 
an egg is only fit for general cooking purposes, and not for 
table purposes. Just what the difference in food value of 
such an egg is, as compared with a new-laid egg, has not been 
determined. The deterioration in appearance and flavor, 
however, can be distinctly noticed, and they make it com- 
mercially less desirable. 

Infection. 1 — Many eggs that are free from bacteria when 
laid, are subsequently infected because of improper handling. 
Bacteria under favorable conditions may penetrate the shell 
by way of the numerous pores, find their way through the 
shell membranes, and enter the contents of the egg. 

As long as an egg is perfectly dry this cannot occur. Where, 
for any cause, the egg becomes moist, the bacteria and other 
microorganisms, which are always abundantly present on 
the shell, grow and move through the pores and finally 
reach the egg contents. 

Dirty nests, particularly those fouled with droppings, 
are a prolific source of infection. An egg has the same tem- 
perature when first laid as the hen laying it. As soon as the 
lien leaves the nest it begins to cool, and the contents to 
contract. If the egg is smeared with fresh manure, some of 
the organisms in it will be drawn through the pores and 
find their way into the egg. Wiping the egg with a damp 
cloth only makes matters worse. It dissolves off the bloom, 
thus opening up the pores, and rubs the organisms into them, 
leaving the egg moist. It may be that the eggs are then 
carried to a cool cellar, which will cause further contraction of 
the contents. 

Care must also be taken not to remove eggs from a very 
cool cellar into the heat of a warm summer day. The moisture 
vapor of the atmosphere will condense on the cool surface 
of the egg, causing it to "sweat." Moisture is favorable to 
the entrance and development of microorganisms whenever 
it finds its way onto the shell of the egg. 

A damp cellar is favorable to the development of mould in 

1 This statement is adapted from one by Bushnell and Maurer in an 
unpublished manuscript, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. 



490 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

the content of the egg, which occurs even at cold storage 
temperatures (29° to 31°). 

Bushnell and Maurer 1 found that the keeping quality does 
not necessarily run parallel with the amount of bacterial 
infection. The keeping quality is determined by the kinds 
of bacteria present rather than the numbers. 

This fact must not lead one to underestimate the sig- 
nificance of infection with regard to spoilage. While not 
all eggs that contain bacteria will spoil, it is only those eggs 
which do contain bacterial or other microorganisms that 
can spoil to any considerable extent. Further, from a prac- 
tical stand-point, it is impossible to distinguish between 
different kinds of infection. The only safe practice is to 
avoid infection in every way possible. 

As has been noted in connection with feeding, the bacterial 
contents of eggs is increased by feeding wet mash as compared 
with dry mash, and that the furnishing of free range for 
laying hens brought about a marked reduction in the numbers 
of bacteria found in their eggs. 

The poor packing of eggs for the purpose of taking the 
eggs to market or for shipping is likely to result in cracked 
eggs that leak. The contents of one egg smeared over several 
others not only moistens them, but at the same time furnishes 
a very excellent medium for the development of bacteria 
and moulds. 

The eggs obtained from different hens also vary widely in 
their keeping quality. For instance, two hens at the Kansas 
Experiment Station laid eggs of which only 4 per cent 
spoiled; while at the same time 33.8 per cent of the eggs 
laid by another hen spoiled. This is a difference of almost 
30 per cent. Unfortunately, we have, at the present time, 
no practical means of eliminating such hens whose eggs' show 
an exceptional susceptibility to spoilage. 

Absorption of Odors. — Eggs, like milk and butter, readily 
absorb strong or penetrating odors. When kept for any 
length of time near onions, fish, or citrus fruits, or in a vege- 
table cellar where there is more or less decay, or even when 

1 Unpublished data, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 491 

laid in nests recently sprayed with an odorous disinfectant, 
they will absorb enough of the flavor to taint them very 
noticeably. While this cannot be detected by the candler, 
except in extreme cases, it is a real source of loss in that a 
tainted egg disappoints the consumer and tends to limit 
consumption. Limited consumption means a lower price. 

Stains. — Besides causing increased infection, foul and dirty 
nests are responsible for numerous soiled eggs. Such an egg 
can only rank as second-class commercially, even if it is 
carefully washed. 

"A year 'round observation of New York egg receipts 
showed that over 12 per cent were dirty shelled, and sold 
for a lower price on this account." 1 Damp, muddy yards 
are also responsible for a large number of dirty eggs. When 
the houses are so crowded that it is necessary to allow the 
birds to run at large, even during rainy weather, a certain 
portion of dirty eggs are unavoidable. If the house is properly 
located with reference to soil and drainage, or the ground 
surrounding the house is carefully tiled, the number of days 
when dirty eggs are necessary will be very much lessened. 

GRADES OF EGGS. 

The different kinds and degrees of deterioration met with 
have led to the classification of eggs into generally recognized 
commercial grades known as firsts, seconds, checks, leakers, 
spots, blood rings, and rots. The grading is done by means 
of a "candle." Candle is the name given to an egg tester 
when it is used in connection with market eggs. It operates 
on precisely the same principle as the lamp tester usually 
sent by incubator manufacturers, and usually consists of a 
tin can with a hole in the side and an electric-light bulb 
inside, as shown in Figure 235. The use of such a candle 
necessitates a dark room. 

Firsts. — A first is the nearest approach to a fresh egg that is 
known to the egg trade. Besides being new laid, it must be 
clean and unwashed, average very close to 45 pounds to 

1 Pennington, Open Letter to Buyers and Shippers of Egjrs, August 6, 
1913. 



492 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



the thirty-dozen case (1| pounds per dozen), show a very 
small air cell, and a smooth, strong shell free from cracks. 
Only firsts are usually considered as fit for storage. 



Fig. 235 




Candling eggs. (Courtesy of H. C. Pierce.) 



Seconds. — Second-class eggs are those which are not up to 
standard in physical qualities or show a more or less marked 
deterioration in food qualities. The poor physical qualities 
that cause rejection for the first grade, without regard to 
its food qualities; are lack of size, being dirty or stained, 
washed, or having a markedly rough or misshapen shell. 

The kinds of deterioration in food quality and which render 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 493 

them unfit for successful preservation by storage or preser- 
vative compounds are as follows: 

1. Weak or Heated Eggs. — With fertile eggs the develop- 
ment of the embryo to a period corresponding to eighteen 
to twenty hours of normal incubation temperatures brings 

Fig. 236 




Appearance of a new-laid egg when broken out. Note how the thick 
albumen "stands up" as compared with the thin albumen which covers the 
bottom of the dish. (Courtesy of University of Missouri.) 

about the condition known as heated. The infertile egg will 
not show heat so quickly, but in either case the color of the 
yolk is intensified, the yolk moves about with greater freedom 
when the egg is rotated, showing that the albumen has become 
less viscous. While the yolk maintains its relative position 



494 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



with reference to the poles of the egg in a new-laid egg, it 
may move up or down in an egg showing heat. At first it 
becomes loosened on the side toward the large end of the 
egg and later from the other side. In an advanced stage of 
weakness, the yolks may appear swollen, caused by the 
absorption of water from the albumen. 

Fig. 2.37 




Fertile egg after twenty-four hours of incubation. (Courtesy of Bureau of 
Animal Industry.) 



2. Shrunken Eggs. — These eggs are easily distinguished 
before the candle by the size of the air cell. The shrink is 
caused by the evaporation of moisture through the shell. 
This may be caused by a comparatively short holding in a 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 



495 



warm, dry atmosphere, or by holding for an extended time 
under quite favorable conditions. 

3. Watery Eggs. — The watery egg is quite similar to the 
heated egg, save that in addition the inner shell membrane 
has become ruptured at the large end of the egg, allowing the 

Fig. 238 




Fertile egg allowed to die after thirty-six hours of incubation, showing a 
slight blood ring. (Courtesy of Bureau of Animal Industry.) 



contents to escape into the space occupied by the air cell, 
giving a movable air cell. 

4. Liver Spots. — Somewhat frequently the rupture of a 
bloodvessel in the oviduct or the sloughing off of a piece of 
tissue or membrane causes the appearance of foreign matter 



496 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

on the yolk or in the albumen, which appears as a spot before 
the candle. This should properly be classed among the 
physical defects. It is not a mark of deterioration, but is a 

Fig. 239 






A live fertile egg after incubating forty-eight hours. (Courtesy of Bureau 
of Animal Industry.) 

condition existing in the egg when it is laid. As it is situated 
in the edible portion, it is classed among the defects in food 
quality. 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 



497 



5. Grass Eggs or Green Whites. — Frequently in the spring 
a condition of the albumen of the egg is met with that causes 
eggs to be referred to as "grass eggs" or "green whites." 
This has usually been attributed directly to the increased con- 

Fig. 240 




Live fertile egg after seventy-two hours of incubation. 
Bureau of Animal Industry.) 



(Courtesy of 



sumption of greeness by the layers because they are likely to 
appear with the product of the spring lay. From the meager 
evidence at hand, it appears probable that this condition is 
due to an infection by a pigment-forming organism and due 
32 



498 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

only indirectly, if at all, to the increased consumption of 
green feed. 1 

Checks. — Checks are cracked eggs. Those in which the 
crack is small and the contents of the egg is still retained 
are called "blind checks." Where the contents is escaping 

Fig. 241 




V 

\ 



Fertile egg allowed to die after seventy-two hours of incubation, showing a 
pronounced blood ring. (Courtesy of Bureau of Animal Industry.) 

they are designated as "leakers." Such eggs may be per- 
fectly sweet and wholesome, but are extremely perishable, 
and are good for immediate consumption or to be broken out 
and dried or frozen. 

1 The pigment-forming organism has been isolated by the Bureau of 
Chemistry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 



499 



Spots. — Eggs in which mould or bacteria has developed 
in isolated areas inside the shell are called "spots." They 
are not fit for food. Eggs in which the yolk has adhered to 
the shell are also classed as spots, being known as stuck 
spots. These eggs are unfit for food, but may be used for 
tanning purposes. 

Fig. 242 




Fertile egg after seven days of incubation. (Courtesy of Bureau of 
Animal Industry.) 



Blood Rings. — Fertile eggs in which the embryo has so far 
developed as to show considerable blood and then died, the 
blood is usually left in a more or less imperfect circle sur- 
rounding the germ. Before the candle this appears as a pink 
ring which from its nature has given the name " blood ring" 
to eggs containing dead germs. These eggs are declared 



500 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



by the government authorities to be unfit for human food, 
and are a total loss, except that in the vicinity of tanneries 
they may be disposed of at a very low price for use in tan- 
ning certain classes of leather goods. 



Fig. 243 




An infertile egg after seven days of incubation. 
Animal Industry.) 



(Courtesy of Bureau of 



Rots. — Eggs that are so far decomposed through the agency 
of mould or bacteria as to be totally unfit for food are termed 
rots. The appearance of rots varies with the kind of organism 
causing its decomposition. They are severally designated 
as black, white, pink, and blood rots. All are equally unfit 
for human consumption. 



PREPARING POULTRY PRODUCTS 501 

Simple Precautions for Securing Firsts. — Almost one-half of 
the annual hot weather egg loss from low grade and spoiled 
eggs is traceable to defects in management existing before 
the eggs are laid and capable of control by the producer. 
Lamon and Opperman 1 found, during a test carried on in 
Kansas and lasting from June 17 to August 26, that by taking 
the following simple precautions over 97 per cent of the eggs 
taken to town during that time were graded as firsts: 

1. The males were kept from the laying flock. This may 
be accomplished by caponizing the young males not needed 
for breeding purposes, or disposing of them as broilers before 
they reach breeding age. The birds reserved for breeding 
should be confined except during the breeding season, at 
the end of which they should again be confined or disposed of. 

2. The hens were furnished with plenty of roomy clean 
nests. 

3. The eggs were gathered twice daily. 

4. They w r ere kept in a cellar that was cool, dry and free 
from odors. 

5. The eggs were taken to market twice a week and care- 
fully protected from the sun on the way to town. 

6. All eggs that were small, dirty, misshapen, or found in 
stolen nests, were kept for home use. 

Home Preservation of Eggs. — Commercially, poultry prod- 
ucts are preserved most largely by the aid of artificial 
refrigeration. In the case of eggs, they are also preserved 
by breaking out of the shell and drying. The dried product 
is packed in barrels for shipping, but for best results must 
be kept under refrigeration when held for any length of time. 
This dried product is soluble and is usually dissolved in water 
before using. 

For home preservation, the most successful method yet 
devised seems to be with the aid of water glass (soluble sodium 
silicate). A 10 per cent solution is made by adding one part 
of the water glass to nine parts of boiled rain-water that has 
been cooled. March and April eggs, preferably infertile, 
give the best results. The solution should be put in an open 

1 Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. 160. 



502 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

crock or glazed jar and the eggs immersed as ■ they are gathered 
every day. At least, two inches of the solution should always 
be above the top layer of eggs. The eggs should be placed in 
the solution with the large end of the egg uppermost, so 
that the contents of the egg will not rest on the air cell and 
rupture the inner shell membrane. Piercing the air cell 
with a coarse needle just before cooking will prevent the 
cracking of the shell caused by the expansion of the air cell 
upon boiling. 

While this method is fairly successful for home preser- 
vation, such eggs are not considered desirable for general 
market purposes, because they are unsuited for preservation 
by the ordinary commercial methods after being preserved 
in water glass. In most states it is unlawful to expose them 
for sale without labelling them "pickled" or "preserved" eggs. 



CHAPTER XV. 

POULTRY DISEASES AND PARASITES. 

Maintenance of Health. — The conservation of vigor and 
maintenance of health are fundamental problems of poultry 
production. In the last analysis these constitute but a 
single problem, for great vigor is only an abundant health. 
The preceding chapters have been given up, for the most 
part, to discussing methods of maintaining health, under 
such divisions as breeding, feeding, and housing. 

In proceeding to a brief and practical discussion of the 

more common poultry diseases, it cannot be too greatly 

emphasized that constructive breeding, with rational feeding 

and management, is the first and principal line of defence 

against disease. This corresponds in a general way to the 

construction and maintenance of a fireproof building. Flock 

treatment to prevent the spread of disease that has somehow 

gained entrance to the flock, corresponds to the efforts of 

the firemen to save other buildings in the block, for even 

"fire proof" buildings sometimes burn. Endeavoring to 

cure a diseased individual corresponds to the efforts to save 

a badly damaged building from complete destruction, with 

this very important difference, that while fire in a building 

may be entirely put out and the damage completely repaired, 

a bird sick with contagious disease is seldom so completely 

cured that it does not constitute a source of danger to its 

flock mates, or so quickly cured that it is capable of complete 

self repair. A sick fowl may usually be considered as 

permanently damaged for productive purposes. Comparing 

the small value of an individual fowl with the serious menace 

to the entire flock of a bacillus-carrying, cured bird, it is 

questionable whether it is ever advisable to attempt the 

cure of birds infected with a contagious disease. 

(503) 



504 POULTRY DISEASES AND PARASITES 

The following pages are given over, with a few exceptions, 
to methods of preventing the further spread of disease which 
has actually gained entrance to the flock and to the control 
of both internal and external parasites. No pretension is 
made at a critical discussion of these diseases, nor do those 
discussed by any means exhaust the list of ills to which fowls 
are heir. Only those rather frequently found on general farms 
are referred to. For a rather complete and critical discussion, 
students are referred to Diseases of Poultry by Pearl, Surface, 
and Curtis, which is the most satisfactory work so far 
published. 

Aspergillosis.— Aspergillosis is a disease that is very 
generally confused with tuberculosis because the general 
symptoms are so similar, though caused by a fungus growth on 
the interior of the air passages. It is usually impossible to 
distinguish between it and tuberculosis during life. On 
postmortem examination red patches of fine mould will be 
found on the interior of the air passages instead of the 
characteristic lesions of tuberculosis. The origin of this 
trouble is the presence of the mould, or its spores, in the 
feed, litter, or surroundings of the birds affected. So far 
as is known, there is no cure. Where postmortem examina- 
tion has disclosed the presence of the disease in a flock 
steps should at once be taken to remove the cause through 
disinfecting the house, providing sweet, clean litter, and 
avoiding all feed that is musty or mouldy. Any further 
birds giving evidence of lack of thrift should be isolated, 
and if they continue to lose strength should be killed and 
burned on the assumption that they have contracted the 
disease. 

Blackhead.— For a discussion of this disease see page 425. 

Bumble Foot. — This name is given to an abscess in the ball 
of the foot or between the toes. It may be the result of a 
bruise or the penetration of a thorn, or even a piece of straw. 
It will usually be first noticed through the lameness of the 
bird. Recovery frequently takes place without treatment, 
but it is best to catch the affected individual and pull out 
the one or more pus cores that are generally present. These 
cores are each covered with a scab, and may usually be 



DIARRHEA 505 

almost entirely removed without the aid of a knife. If it is 
not possible to accomplish this, a string should be tied 
about the leg above the foot to prevent excessive bleeding, 
and the abscess opened with a knife, and thoroughly cleaned 
out. The foot should then be wrapped in cloth to prevent 
its being picked by other birds. If the infection has not 
become generalized recovery is usually prompt and complete, 
though a second opening of the abscess may be necessary 
if the work of removing the pus core is not careful and 
complete in the first instance. 

Chicken Pox. — This disease, frequently referred to as sore 
head, is usually recognized by the warty excrescences which 
appear on the face and head gear. These protrusions 
later become scabby. Investigators are uncertain whether 
this is simply one form of roup or an entirely different 
disease. Uncertainty also exists as to the cause, whether 
it be one or more organisms or a virus. As a usual thing 
if the scabs are removed promptly upon their appearance, 
and creoline or any standard stock dip applied, full strength, 
the trouble will disappear. As in the case of all infectious 
diseases, the bird should be promptly isolated and not 
returned to the flock until the trouble has entirely disappeared. 

Constipation. — Constipation may occur from a variety of 
causes. It is far more common among young stock than 
among the older birds. It may be caused through irritation 
of the mucous membranes of the intestine or through such 
obstruction as may result from the eating of a feather, 
or the accumulation of gravel, or even the accumulation 
of intestinal worms. Birds usually stand or crouch with 
ruffled feathers, or move about with more or less difficulty, 
and make frequent and apparently painful attempts to 
pass the excrement. Where such cases appear in the flock 
the whole flock should immediately be purged by means of 
Epsom salts in the mash at the rate of a teaspoonful per 
adult bird. With young stock the doses should be modified 
to suit the age of the stock. 

Diarrhea. — The careful husbandman always watches the 
consistency of the droppings of whatever sort of animals 
he may be keeping. The normal consistency of chicken 



506 POULTRY DISEASES AND PARASITES 

droppings is such that they hold their shape upon evacuation 
and do not soil or stick to the dropping board. A variation 
of feed will usually cause more or less looseness which is not 
at all alarming. The condition is not referred to as diar- 
rhetic until the consistency of the evacuations is such as to 
soil the feathers. If no other symptoms appear beyond 
the diarrhea, and the color is not such as to suspect diseases 
described elsewhere in this chapter, it may usually be 
assumed that something is wrong with the feed. The birds 
should be given salts in a wet mash, at the rate of a 
teaspoonful per bird and the cause sought out and removed. 

Cropbound. — Cropbound or the impaction of the crop is 
a condition usually brought about through improper feeding. 
It may occur where birds that have been starved consume 
a large amount of dry grain, thereby distending the walls 
of the crop and apparently bringing about a partial para- 
lysis. More frequently it is brought about by the con- 
sumption of indigestible material which clogs the opening 
from the crop into the lower portion of the alimentary tract. 
This is likely to occur in the spring with stock that has 
not been supplied with green feed during the winter. When 
the first green shoots appear, fowls consume considerable 
dead grass in their eagerness to get the tender green shoots. 
This grass may become worked into a ball, which is too 
large to pass through the lower opening of the crop. Not 
infrequently birds that are changed suddenly to a ration 
containing oats suffer from this difficulty. A single oat 
lodged across the ventral opening of the crop may at first 
act as a mechanical obstruction, later causing irritation and 
swelling that completely closes the opening. 

Where cropbound appears in any considerable number of 
a given flock the first consideration should be the protection 
of the unaffected members of the flock through the removal 
of the cause. If on inspection of the affected birds it is 
found that oats have caused the difficulty they should be 
taken from the ration and re-introduced only very gradually. 
If dead grass picked up in an effort to secure green feed is 
the cause, a generous supply of succulence should be 
provided. 



EGG BOUND 507 

There is no general method of treating the affected birds. 
Each must have individual attention. In case the condition 
is brought about through the overeating of dried grains it 
may be overcome by injecting sweet oil into the crop through 
the mouth and manipulating the material in the crop until 
it can be softened and worked out through the mouth. 
Usually it will save time to give the condition surgical 
attention. The feathers should be plucked from one side 
of the neck near the crop until an area of sufficient size is 
made to allow the making of an incision an inch and a half 
in length. The skin should then be pulled around so that an 
incision in the crop itself may be made on the side away 
from the incision in the outer skin. This incision having 
been made the contents of the crop should be removed, 
particular care being taken to see that the lower opening of 
the crop is entirely free. The interior of the crop should 
then be washed out with warm water. The edges of the 
incision in the crop should then be drawn together with 
stitches of white silk or white cotton thread, each stitch made 
separately and tied. The outside skin should be drawn 
together in the same way, and the bird fed on milk for a 
couple of days. This may be gradually changed to soft 
feeds, and in a week or ten days the bird will be ready for 
the regular ration. 

Egg Bound. — The condition referred to as "egg bound" 
in poultry is quite analogous to cases of difficult parturition 
in larger animals. It may arise from several causes, such 
as the inflammation of the oviduct, a partial paralysis of the 
oviduct or the production of an egg so large that it is 
mechanically impossible for the bird to lay it. 

The trouble may be observed by the hens continuing on 
the nest without clucking, and straining in an effort to 
exclude the egg. Sometimes this straining will take place 
off the nest, the bird not infrequently appearing lame or in 
pain. It is usually possible to insert the fingers, anointed 
with carbolized vaseline, into the oviduct, and by manipula- 
tion with the other hand force the egg out. It is sometimes 
necessary, however, to insert a wire or awl, and carefully 
break the shell of the egg, and remove it in parts. 



508 POULTRY DISEASES AND PARASITES 

Eversion of the Oviduct. — Hens or pullets are sometimes 
discovered on the nest or about the yard with a red or 
purplish mass protruding from the vent. This condition 
may be caused by inflammation of the oviduct, followed by 
straining in an effort to lay an egg. If the bird is discovered 
before its flock mates begin to pick at the everted oviduct, 
the bird will usually make a good recovery, if the mass is 
gently pushed back into place, the finger having been 
covered with carbolized vaseline. If there is dirt of any 
kind upon the oviduct, it should be washed off with warm 
water. The birds should then be put in a dark, cool place for 
twelve hours or more, preferably with the feet fastened in a 
loop in such a way that the rear part of the body will be 
slightly elevated. As a usual thing the trouble will not 
occur again, and the bird may start laying within a day cr 
two. If the difficulty appears more than twice it should be 
considered chronic, and disposition made of the bird. 

Fowl Cholera. — Cholera is a disease caused by a minute 
organism which finds its way into a healthy flock in numer- 
ous ways. Possibly the most frequent is the purchase of an 
infected bird. The disease is highly contagious, and once it 
gains entrance to a flock is likely to spread very rapidly. It 
may be brought in by wild birds of which several species 
appear susceptible. It may even be introduced by means of 
dogs, cats, or other animals that have been over areas 
occupied by infected flocks. 

Fowl cholera is not as common in this country as is popu- 
larly supposed. It is frequently confused with fowl typhoid, 
or even acute cases of diarrhea. The most noticeable symp- 
toms are a marked diarrhea, in which the excreta from the 
kidneys (urates) which usually appear as the white pasty 
material of the feces, are yellow. While such a symptom 
does not absolutely prove that cholera is present, it should 
be considered as a highly suspicious one, and steps should 
at once be taken to control the disease. Later the color 
of the urates may change from yellow to bright green. 
Along with these symptoms the crop is frequently distended 
and a postmortem examination reveals the fact that the 
digestive organs are congested and inflamed. Though there 



FROZEN HEADGEAR 509 

are numerous cholera "cures" on the market, it is probable 
that no cure for this disease has yet been discovered. 

When an outbreak of cholera is suspected the sick birds 
should at once be killed, care being taken that none of the 
blood is spattered about or allowed to drip on the ground, as 
the blood contains the organisms causing the trouble, and 
will be a means of spreading the disease. Bodies of the birds 
should then be burned. Burying is dangerous unless it is very 
deep and the carcass surrounded with quick lime before 
being covered. This is due to the fact that skunks or dogs 
are likely to dig up the carcasses and spread parts of them 
about the premises, and even insects working about the 
carcass are likely to spread the disease. Unaffected birds 
should be removed at once to new quarters that have been 
thoroughly disinfected with a solution of 1 pound of carbolic 
acid to 12 quarts of water. This disinfection of the new 
premises should be repeated frequently and the birds care- 
fully watched for further outbreaks. Any birds showing 
the least sign of the disease should at once be killed and 
burned. The litter and droppings from the house where 
the original outbreak occurred should be carefully burned, the 
premises about the house sowed with hydrated lime, at the 
rate of 500 pounds to the acre, plowed, and sowed to a crop. 
When the difficulty has been brought under control and 
there are no further outbreaks, it is the part of wisdom to 
market all birds that were not affected and wait at least one 
year before attempting to engage further in poultry raising. 
This is particularly true on the general farm where the 
birds have the run of the farm, or where the disease is 
likely to have become widely distributed through the 
droppings, by the time it is discovered. In such a case 
it is, of course, impractical to disinfect the whole range, 
and it will be necessary to depend upon such natural dis- 
infectants as cold, sunlight, and dryness to accomplish the 
task. 

Frozen Headgear. — During extreme weather the comb and 
wattles on fowls are very likely to be frost bitten. Generally 
it is not profitable to try to avoid this further than provid- 
ing proper housing conditions. Such freezing undoubtedly 
interferes seriously with production for the time being, but 



510 POULTRY DISEASES AND PARASITES 

if the birds are properly housed the birds frozen will be so 
few that it will not pay to take special pains to prevent 
freezing. In the case of large wattled males it is sometimes 
advisable to grease the wattles with vaseline, which offers 
some protection against their being frozen through dipping 
in freezing water when the bird drinks. After freezing 
occurs there is little that can be done beyond anointing 
the frozen parts with a mixture of vaseline and glycerine, in 
which there are a few drops of turpentine, and manipulating 
to restore the circulation. 

Gapes. — Gapes are usually noticed through a characteristic 
gapping accompanied by coughing and the discharge from 
the mouth of more or less mucus. The trouble is caused 
by the presence in the air passages of very small parasitic 
worms. These worms attach themselves to the mucous 
membranes of the air passages, thereby causing an irritation, 
and not infrequently an inflammation. They sometimes 
gather in sufficient quantities to cause suffocation. Where 
this condition is suspected as a cause of death, the correct- 
ness of the diagnosis can be determined by opening the 
windpipe where the small, thread-like apparently forked 
worms may be observed. In live birds the presence of the 
worms may be determined by inserting a loop of horse 
hair into the windpipe and twisting it to loosen some of 
the worms and then withdrawing it. If the worms are 
present, some of them are very likely to be drawn out. The 
forked or double-headed appearance of the worm arises 
from the fact that the male and female are permanently 
joined. 

The treatment is to isolate the affected birds and move 
those not affected at once onto fresh sodded ground. It is 
sometimes possible to affect a cure of diseased individuals 
by means of a so-called worm extractor, which may be a 
looped horse hair, as suggested above, a very fine looped 
wire, or even a feather that has been stripped of the web 
except at the extreme end. This treatment is likely to be 
tedious, and there is no assurance that all the worms are 
withdrawn. A better practice is to kill and burn affected 
birds, and move the. balance of the flock to fresh ground 
from time to time until no more cases appear. 



LEG WEAKNESS 511 

Indigestion. — Indigestion refers to the condition frequently 
referred to by practical poultrymen as "off feed." The 
fowls lose interest in their feed and are dull and listless. 
The most frequent causes are over-feeding, feeding too 
great a proportion of mash in the ration, or too much con- 
centrates without sufficient green feed. The remedy is 
largely in finding and removing the cause. Pearl, Surface, 
and Curtis 1 suggest the advisability of furnishing such birds 
with a tonic made up as follows : 

Pulverized gentian 1 pound 

Pulverized ginger i " 

Pulverized saltpeter \ " 

Pulverized iron sulphate i " 

These substances can be procured from any drug store and 
mixed by the poultryman. Use 2 to 3 tablespoonfuls of the 
tonic to 10 quarts of dry mash. 

Recovery from indigestion may also be hastened by the 
following treatment: For the first week after the trouble 
has been discovered add one teaspoonful of Epsom salts 
to each quart of drinking water. Follow this for two 
weeks with | grain of strychnine to each quart of drinking 
water. 

Leg Weakness. — Leg weakness which is largely limited 
to growing stock is attributed to too much heat in the 
brooder and to improper feeding. As would be supposed 
from the name, it affects the legs and at first the hock 
joints particularly, which apparently become so loosened 
that they will bend in any direction. As the trouble pro- 
gresses, the limbs frequently become spread out, the birds 
losing control of them to such an extent that they can only 
scramble about with the body resting on the ground. The 
appetite remains good, and good recovery is made if the 
cause of the trouble is removed. The trouble seems really 
to be that the birds grow in weight faster than they grow 
in strength. 

Where artificial brooding is practiced the temperature 
should be reduced as low as possible without making the 

1 Diseases of Poultry. 



512 POULTRY DISEASES AND PARASITES 

birds uncomfortable. At the same time a dose of Epsom 
salts should be administered, and particular pains taken 
to see that a considerable amount of granulated bone is 
consumed. If the birds are being forced, the amount of 
protein in the ration should be reduced and exercise induced 
in every way possible. An abundant supply of green feed 
is frequently very helpful in overcoming this difficulty. 

Hart, Halpin and Steenbock 1 have recently reported 
experiments in feeding which suggest that a large per cent of 
crude fiber in the ration is a preventative of leg-weakness in 
chicks reared in confinement and fed a synthetic diet. The 
fact that the malady was accompanied by loss of appetite 
and usually terminated fatally in the stock they worked with, 
suggests the possibility that they were dealing with a different 
form of leg-weakness than that met with in practical work, 
where the chicks appear literally to be grown off their feet 
but maintain their appetite and activity and eventually 
make a good recovery. 

Lice. — There are several species of lice which infest poultry, 
and between which, from the practical stand-point, it is not 
necessary to distinguish. Whenever birds begin to show 
lack of thrift it is always well to suspect lice, and to make 
an examination in an effort to discover them. While they 
infest all parts of the body, they are usually particularly 
numerous about the vent and under the wings. Masses of 
eggs or nits may frequently be found attached to the base 
of the feathers about the vent. 

Lice multiply very rapidly, and unless steps are taken to 
control them, are likely to interfere with both the birds' 
health and production. With any except the most heavily 
feathered breeds lice may be kept in control by simply 
furnishing dusting facilities. Common road dust is very 
satisfactory, as are also sifted coal ashes. Wood ashes 
should not be used. Where the dust bath does not control 
the situation, individual treatment must be resorted to. 
Sodium fluoride, which may be secured at any drug store will 
be found satisfactory when thoroughly dusted into the 
feathers of the infested fowl. 

1 Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. xliii, No. 2, 



MITES 513 

Dipping is even more effective. "In using the dipping 
method all that is necessary is a supply of tepid water and a 
wash tub. If two persons are to dip at the same time it is 
advisable to use a large tub. The water should be measured 
into the tub and three-fourths to one ounce of commercial 
sodium fluoride added to each gallon of water. It is readily 
dissolved by stirring. In dipping, it is best to hold the 
wings over the back with the left hand and quickly submerge 
the fowl in the solution, leaving the head out while the feathers 
are thoroughly ruffled with the other hand so as to allow the 
solution to penetrate to the skin. The head is then ducked 
once or twice, the bird lifted out and allowed to drain a few 
seconds and then released. The total time required for an 
individual fowl is thirty to forty-five seconds." 1 

\Vhen the dipping is done on a warm, still day so that the 
birds dry out quickly no ill effects seem to follow. 

Blue ointment (mercurial) has been found satisfactory 
when worked into the feathers about the vent. The 
mercurial ointment may be made by thoroughly mixing the 
following: 

Mercury 1 pound 

Lard 1 " 

Vaseline 1 " 

Liver Enlargement. — This condition is sometimes some- 
what difficult for the ordinary producer to diagnose in the 
live bird. It is usually accompanied by an increase in the 
fowl's weight and frequent evacuations of dark yellow semi- 
liquid feces. It is sometimes accompanied by excessive 
thirst. With postmortem examination, however, the liver 
will be found enlarged, mottled in color, easily torn apart, 
and greasy. This disease is most likely to occur toward the 
end of winter when the supply of green feed has been deficient. 

The treatment consists of feeding the whole flock liberally 
of succulent feed of some kind, first giving the birds a wet 
mash containing a teaspoonful of Epsom salts for each 
bird in the flock. 

Mites. — There are more species of mites than lice, but, as 
in the case of lice, it is not necessary for the practical poultry- 

1 Farmers' Bulletin, No. 801, U. S. Dept. of Agric. 
33 



514 POULTRY DISEASES AND PARASITES 

man to distinguish between the different species, aside from 
the scaly-leg mite mentioned elsewhere. The mite is a tiny, 
spider-like parasite with piercing mouth parts. It does not 
live on the body of the fowl as does the louse, but goes upon 
it from the nest or perch to gorge itself with blood. Mites 
are most frequently discovered about the perches or nests 
where they live and breed in the filth accumulating in the 
cracks and crevices. These tiny parasites multiply rapidly, 
once the quarters have become infested, and one should be 
constantly on the lookout for them. When discovered, 
the roosts and nests should be at once thoroughly sprayed 
with kerosene containing enough crude carbolic acid to 
give it a very decided odor. This treatment should be 
repeated again in nine or ten days if the weather is cool, 
or in five or six days if it is very hot. The reason for 
the second spraying is that it is usually impossible to 
reach with a spray, eggs that have been laid far back in 
the cracks. It is necessary to spray the second time and 
sometimes even a third time in order to destroy the mites 
that hatch out from these eggs. The interval between 
spraying depends upon temperature, because the eggs 
hatch more quickly in warm weather than in cool. Mites 
are found more often in dark houses than in light ones, 
and cutting windows in a dark house not infrequently 
proves a means of preventing further infestations. 

Poisons.- — There are numerous ways in which poultry 
pick up sufficient poison about the farm to throw them out 
of condition or even cause death to considerable numbers. 
Among those most frequently reported are common salt that 
has been put out for live stock; lead and zinc poisoning, 
which result from the birds eating paint skins which form 
on old paint buckets; arsenic, which is the basis of many 
rat poisons; and copper, which appears in many mixtures for 
spraying fruit trees. Nitrate of soda used as a fertilizer 
may be picked up in sufficient quantities to cause difficulty. 
The symptoms of the various poisons differ somewhat, but 
usually include loss of appetite, unsteadiness of gait, or 
extreme nervousness followed by convulsions and death. 

The treatment is to first seek out and remove the cause. 
In the case of poisons from fertilizers it will probably be 



ROUP 515 

necessary to confine the birds to a grassy pasture where 
the fertilizer has not been used. The whole flock, including 
the affected birds, should be given a heavy dose of Epsom 
salts, which may be followed, in the case of the affected 
birds, by mucilaginous drinks or strong coffee. A drink 
suitable for this purpose may be made by boiling flax seed 
or diluting the whites of eggs with water. 

Ptomain Poisoning. — This trouble is usually caused through 
feeding spoiled or decayed feed. Not infrequently on the 
general farm a rabbit or squirrel is wounded, but escapes 
only to die later where the chickens can get at it. It fre- 
quently becomes putrid before the birds have finished it, 
and ptomain poisoning results. It also occurs in warm 
weather through the feeding of milk where the containers 
in which it is placed before the fowls are not properly and 
frequently cleaned and scalded. Enough of the milk dries 
on the sides of the pan to putrify and cause this difficulty. 
Its symptoms are usually the partial paralysis of muscles 
in different parts of the body. 

The first evidence of the trouble is an unsteadiness of 
gait followed by inability to walk, and sometimes later in the 
form of the so-called "limberneck" with which the bird 
loses control, more or less completely, of the head and neck. 

The treatment consists in removing the cause, giving 
the entire flock a purgative dose of Epsom salts, and the 
affected bird a teaspoonful of castor oil, followed by a half 
grain of strychnine. 

Roup. — Roup is the most wide-spread of any disease attack- 
ing adult chickens, and is probably second only to white 
diarrhea in the seriousness of the resulting economic loss. 
Technically, roup refers to one and possibly two specific 
diseases, namely, catarrhal roup and diphtheritic roup. 
Practically, it refers to that group of diseases effecting the 
mouth, larynx, bronchial tubes, nasal cavities, and the 
membranes surrounding the eye. These diseases may be 
technically, divided into common cold, bronchitis, influenza, 
and canker, but practically such a differentiation is 
unnecessary from the stand-point of flock treatment, and 
indeed is impossible for the ordinary producer. 

Investigators are not agreed as to whether catarrhal roup 



516 POULTRY DISEASES AND PARASITES 

and diphtheritic roup are in reality separate and distinct 
diseases, each caused by a specific organism, or whether they 
are simply two stages of the same disease. Either one or 
both of these forms is probably caused by an organism, but 
investigators are not agreed as to whether it is a bacterium 
or a protozoan in the first place, and those who are sure 
that it is caused by a bacterium are divided as to which one 
of several is really specific. Indeed, it appears from the 
information at hand that roup may be caused by any one 
of several organisms, just as in the case of pneumonia in 
the human family. From the practical stand-point, aside 
from the introduction of a virulent form of disease through 
the purchase of an infected bird and by other similar means, 
the causes of the appearance of roup are largely predisposing 
ones, such as bad housing conditions, consisting of dampness, 
inadequate ventilation, and crowded quarters, while if any- 
thing, more important still is the lack of vitality in the 
breeding stock. 

The symptoms of this general group of diseases designated 
as roup are well known. It may manifest itself through 
sneezing or by a watery discharge from the nostrils or eyes, 
or the first symptom noticed may be a rattling in the throat 
as the bird breathes. Later on all of these symptoms may 
put in an appearance, accompanied by a progressive thicken- 
ing of the nasal discharge, until it entirely closes the nostrils. 
The discharge from the eye may also thicken to a cheesy 
consistency, accumulating in sufficient mass to entirely close 
the eye and have the appearance of a tumor. In the so-called 
diphtheritic roup, clearly defined patches, commonly called 
cankers, put in their appearance on the inside of the mouth 
and on the tongue. 

While most of the treatises on poultry diseases recom- 
mend certain treatments for birds showing the different 
manifestations of roup, and almost without exception 
emphasize the desirability of disinfecting the poultry house 
whenever roup appears among the birds, practically, it is 
impossible for the general farm producer to carry out such 
a program. When roup is discovered in his flock, he should 
always isolate, kill, and burn the affected individual. This 
should be done for two reasons. One is that the bird may be 



SCALY LEG 517 

a source of danger to the remainder of the flock, and second, 
the very fact that one individual succumbs to infection, 
while others do not, indicate that it is weaker in some 
respects than others, and not desirable for breeding purposes. 

While the author has made no critical study of roup and 
kindred affections, a considerable experience with the disease 
in its various forms leads him to the firm belief that the one 
or several organisms causing roup are omnipresent, and 
that any flock of birds is likely to harbor the organisms, and, 
in fact, most of them do. The matter of an outbreak 
usually depends upon predisposing causes, and, if at all 
general, indicates that something in the breeding or the 
management is radically wrong. Occasionally, no doubt, 
there may be ultravirulent strains of the organisms intro- 
duced, which will be followed by epidemics even under the 
best breeding and management, but such conditions are rare. 
The fundamental treatment for this class of diseases is to 
bred for constitutional vigor, and then be continually alert 
for its conservation. It is frequently the case that fowls 
in a single house are affected, when birds of the same breed- 
ing in other houses, fed the same ration and cared for in the 
same way in every particular, are not affected. Under such 
circumstances, one would be justified in presuming that 
something was wrong with the house. The only way to 
overcome such a situation is, of course, to find the pre- 
disposing cause, such as dampness or inadequate ventilation, 
and remedy it. 

In certain states where poultry keeping has developed into 
a specialized industry, notably California, roup vaccines have 
been developed which afford quite efficient protection against 
epidemics but which do not impart a permanent immunity. 

Scaly Leg. — This is a condition of the shanks and toes 
caused by the burrowing under the scales of a tiny mite. 
This burrowing causes an irritation which results in the secre- 
tion of material, which, as it accumulates, raises the scales. 
In extreme cases the scales become covered or disappear, 
and the secretion so abundant as to appear in large gran- 
ular lumps on the shanks. The latter condition may be 
accompanied by lameness. 

Unfortunately, individual treatment must be given. The 



518 POULTRY DISEASES AND PARASITES 

legs should be anointed with some penetrating oil, such as 
the oil of caraway, or with lard, or vaseline, in which there 
are a few drops of kerosene. Pure kerosene should not be 
used, because it is almost impossible to keep it from working 
up into the feathers and scalding the skin. The anointing 
of the legs should be repeated once or twice a week until the 
trouble disappears. 

Sunstroke. — Although the original habitat of at least a 
part of the ancestors of our domestic poultry was a very hot 
country, poultry, and particularly chickens, do not seem very 
well equipped to stand extreme heat, and heat prostrations 
are quite frequent. If the birds are discovered soon after 
the prostration occurs they may sometimes be saved by 
putting them in a cool place and tying the head in cold wet 
clothes. It is well to give them as a purgative two teaspoon- 
fuls of castor oil or Epsom salts. 

In order to guard against numerous prostrations shade 
should be provided, and during hot weather it is well to give 
a wet mash at noon, as this tends to cool the digestive 
tract and keep the birds quiet during the heat of the 
day. 

Tuberculosis. — This disease is caused by a minute organism 
which in many respects is quite similar to the one causing 
tuberculosis irj man and other mammals. It seldom appears 
in anything but adult or very nearly adult stock. It is highly 
contagious, and may be introduced by means of birds, the 
English sparrow being particularly susceptible. This disease 
is serious, not only from the stand-point of economic loss, 
but because tubercular fowls in all probability form a 
serious menace to the poultryman and his family. It is 
popularly understood that a tubercular hen is not likely to 
lay, but this is not in accordance with the facts. Avian 
tubercular bacilli have been found alive in eggs that have 
been poached, and the avian form of the organism has 
been found along with the form common to the human 
family in persons suffering from tuberculosis. 

In a somewhat exhaustive discussion of tuberculosis, 
Pearl, Surface, and Curtis 1 make the following statement: 

1 Diseases of Poultry. 



WHITE DIARRHEA 519 

"It appears that while fowls are not very likely to contract 
tuberculosis from domestic animals or from man, yet fowls 
that have the disease are a serious menace to other animals 
on the farm as well as to the poultryman and his family." 
Avian tuberculosis is exceedingly difficult to recognize in 
its early stages. As the disease advances, however, pro- 
gressive emaciation may be noticed, accompanied by a 
feverishly bright eye. This is likely to be accompanied by 
general weakness and a ravenous appetite. It not infre- 
quently happens that there are tumors, ulcers, etc., and if 
the disease is localized in the joint there will be lameness. 
Where tuberculosis is suspected it is always well to kill a 
suspected case and examine the liver and spleen. In a great 
majority of cases these will be covered by numerous raised 
nodules. With many forms of sickness the liver is affected, 
and may be blotched, but these blotches are usually depressed 
or raised very slightly. There is a tuberculin test now being 
used with poultry which is somewhat similar to the tuberculin 
test used with mammals. A supply of the tuberculin is 
not likely to be at hand, however, and it is usually advisable 
as soon as tuberculosis is suspected to ship two or three of 
the live suspects to the bacteriology laboratory of the State 
Agricultural College, where the disease can be definitely 
diagnosed. If the difficulty is pronounced as tuberculosis 
it is the part of wisdom to dispose of the whole flock, as up to 
the present time there is no cure for this disease when it 
has advanced to a point where any of the symptoms noted 
above have put in their appearance. In case the disease has 
appeared in valuable breeding stock which it is highly desir- 
able to maintain, specific directions for handling the situation 
should be secured from the State Bacteriological Laboratory. 
White Diarrhea. — This is a disease attacking chicks soon 
after hatching, usually appearing by the time they are a week 
or ten days old. It is probably the most serious scourge, 
from an economic stand-point, with which the poultry 
raiser has to deal. It corresponds in its seriousness as a 
menace to poultry production with that of hog cholera in 
pork production, or contagious abortion with dairy cattle. 
It appears that this difficulty is caused by a bacterium which 
finds its way into the digestive tfact of the chick in various 



520 POULTRY DISEASES AND PARASITES 

ways. The possibility of the infection being transmitted 
from a mother to her offspring by means of the yolk material 
in the egg has already been discussed in its relation to the 
inheritance of disease (see page 94). 

The danger of bringing the disease onto the farm and 
causing a serious epidemic through purchasing eggs from a 
breeder whose stock has previously been infected cannot be 
too strongly emphasized. The same danger presents itself 
in buying breeding females from a flock where infection 
has previously occurred. 

The symptoms of this disease usually appear between a 
week and ten days after hatching. The chicks become 
dumpish and sleepy, tend to stand around, lose their appe- 
tites, and not infrequently give a characteristic plaintive 
cry as if in pain. At the same time there is usually a marked 
diarrhea, the discharge appearing white and somewhat 
mucilaginous in consistency. There appears to be no 
characteristic symptom that can be depended upon as a 
means to an accurate diagnosis of this disease. Chicks 
that are suffering from scours as the result of eating grains 
that have musted or molded in the bin, present symptoms 
that are very similar. The same is true of another form 
of contagious diarrhea that is referred to as intestinal 
coccidiosis. 

The loss from white diarrhea is usually heaviest when the 
chicks are from one to three weeks of age. So far as is known, 
there is no definite cure. One's whole attention should be 
directed to preventing its spread to uninfected stock, both 
young and old, by means of which a similar outbreak may 
occur during a later season. It is stated by investigators 
at the Storrs Station where the most important work on this 
disease has been carried on that infection in baby chicks 
seldom takes place after they are four days old. That is to 
say, the birds seldom contract the disease after this age, so 
that they are themselves inconvenienced. This does not 
mean, however, that they may not transmit the disease to 
older fowls. In fact, this forms one of the great difficulties 
in ridding one's farm of the scourge. 

If chicks suffering from this disease are allowed any 
considerable range, the organisms are likely to be picked up 



WORMS 521 

by adult females, which in turn become bacillus carriers, 
likely to transmit the disease to then offspring the following 
season, as indicated in the discussion on page 94. All 
eggs purchased from flocks where it is not definitely known 
that no outbreak of anything similar to white diarrhea has 
occurred for several years should be hatched in a separate 
incubator away from eggs that are known to be from unin- 
fected stock. Upon hatching these chicks should be brooded 
by themselves, confined to a run that can be easily disin- 
fected should the trouble put in an appearance, and so 
isolated that other stock cannot come in contact with them. 

One reason why incubator chicks appear to be more 
susceptible to white diarrhea than hen-hatched chicks is 
probably found in the fact that they are hatched in much 
larger numbers in incubators than under a hen, and a single 
chick hatched from an infected egg may be the means of 
infecting a large number of its flock mates, the organisms 
being distributed about through the incubator by means 
of the droppings from this chick. If the interior of the 
incubator is not darkened, the chicks are very likely to pick 
at the droppings as they begin to get hungry. For this 
reason, it is usually good practice to keep the incubator 
darkened until the chicks are taken to the brooder. They 
should be kept isolated for a period of at least three weeks, 
after which time one may be reasonably sure that no infection 
has occurred. 

Where the chicks do show symptoms similar to those 
described above, every chick in the flock should be promptly 
burned and the entire equipment and run where they were 
kept, carefully and thoroughly disinfected. The litter, all 
droppings, and the fringe on the hover should be burned. 
One should also be careful to disinfect the hands and shoes 
after having handled the chicks, or been on the ground where 
infected birds have been. 

In disinfecting the run it should be sowed with hydrated 
lime at the rate of 500 pounds to the acre, plowed and sowed 
to some crop. The corners that the plow does not reach 
should be carefully spaded by hand. 

Worms. — From the practical stand-point it is hardly 
necessary to distinguish between the different kinds of 



522 POULTRY PRODUCTION 

worms. Generally speaking, they are divided into flat 
segmented worms known as tape worms, and round worms. 
Few birds are entirely free from worms of some kind. Where 
the stock is vigorous they usually cause very little incon- 
venience. It is usually only in birds that are somewhat 
lacking in vigor that the worms reproduce with sufficient 
rapidity to constitute a menace to the host. 

The symptoms of worms are so general that it is usually 
impossible to diagnose their presence unless they are observed 
in the intestine upon a postmortem examination, or are 
noticed in the droppings. When worms are observed, it may 
usually be assumed that the difficulty has permeated the 
flock fairly completely. Ackert 1 recommends the following 
for flock treatment: "To a gallon of a mixture of wheat 
and oats, add a small teaspoonful of concentrated lye, with 
sufficient water to prevent scorching. Cook slowly for two 
hours and cool. Fast the birds to be treated for fifteen 
hours, then give them all of this mixture that they will eat, 
providing an abundance of water for them to drink. After 
twelve to twenty hours give a second dose in the same 
manner." 

During the time of treatment the birds should be confined 
so that all of the droppings may be collected and burned. 
About forty-eight hours after the second dose has been 
given the quarters should be thoroughly disinfected, and, if 
possible, the birds allowed a grassy run where chickens 
have not been previously kept. The desirability for this 
later precaution arises from the fact that with some of the 
worms the earth worm appears to be a host at one stage 
in the life-history. It is, therefore, desirable after ridding 
the fowls of the parasites, by the method suggested above, 
to have them run on ground where the likelihood of the 
earth worms being infested is slight. On the general farms 
where the fowls have free range, as they should have, it is, 
of course, impossible to accomplish this, and permanent 
relief from worm infestations can only arise from the breeding 
of stock of sufficient vigor to prevent any great multiplication 
of the parasites. 

1 Parasitologist, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. 



APPENDIX. 



Table L. 1 — The Average Annual Farm Income from Poultry. 



State. 


Eggs. 


Carcasses 
sold. 


Total 




$ 11.535 


$ 7.98 


$ 19.515 




112.423 


43.68 


156.103 




17.623 


9.45 


27.073 




183.43 


73.43 


256.86 




56.57 


32.45 


89.02 




96.57 


46.68 


143.25 




82.105 


48.15 


130.255 


District of Columbia ... 


111.94 


87.07 


199.01 


Florida 


26.535 


16 32 


42.855 




10.31 


9.308 


19.618 


Idaho 


52.11 


27.98 


80.09 


Illinois 


59.227 


35.417 


94 . 644 




58.27 


29.63 


87.90 




70.043 


33.91 


103.953 


Kansas 


68.228 


27.65 


95.878 


Kentucky . . 


24.29 


17.199 


41.489 


Louisiana . . 


20.282 


11.06 


31.342 


Maine 


71.35 


26.617 


97.967 


Maryland 


58.37 


40.609 


98.979 


Massachusetts . .... 


138.24 


76.92 


215.16 




48.98 


22.73 


71.71 




53.318 


22.82 


76.138 




10.92 


8.99 


19.91 




58.39 


32.26 


90.65 




78.32 


40.49 


118.81 




50.80 


25.28 


76.08 




113.08 


51.77 


164.85 


New Hampshire 


87.13 


37.78 


124.91 




114.59 


106.90 


221.49 




28.86 


16.06 


44.92 




72.66 


35.115 


107.775 


North Carolina 


12.866 


11.24 


24.106 


North Dakota 


35.33 


20.61 


55.94 


Ohio 


62.19 


26.75 


88.94 




34.61 


19.37 


53.98 




66.09 


31.87 


97.96 


Pennsylvania 


67.17 


31.56 


98.73 


Rhode Island 


185.79 


81.91 


267.70 


South Dakota 


57.59 


24.33 


81.92 




9.12 


9.63 


18.75 




24.56 


14.88 


39.44 


Texas 


20.76 


14.32 


35.08 


Utah 


48.17 


19.45 


67.62 




50.97 


25.94 


76.91 




30.87 


23.16 


54.03 




86.47 


34.57 


121.04 


West Virginia 


32.24 


17.09 


49.33 


Wisconsin 


45.23 


21.59 


66.82 


Wyoming 


51.51 


29.18 


80.69 


Average for all the States .... 


60.57 


31.82 


92.39 



1 Compiled from the United States Census Report for 1910. 

( 523 ) 



524 



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526 APPENDIX 



Table LII. — Showing the Number and Value of Poultry Kept 

in Each State x 

Number of fowls. Value. 

Alabama . . ■ 5,028,104 $1,807,239 

Arizona 268,762 1,545,966 

Arkansas 5,788,570 2,063,432 

California 6,087,267 3,844,536 

Colorado 1,721,445 1,012,251 

Connecticut 1,265,702 988,653 

Delaware 876,081 560,146 

District of Columbia 8,349 6,477 

Florida 1,326,271 673,814 

Georgia 5,328,584 2,088,653 

Idaho 1,053,876 598,190 

Illinois 21,409,835 11,696,650 

Indiana . , . . . . 13,789,109 7,762,015 

Iowa 23,482,880 12,269,881 

Kansas 15,736,038 7,377,469 

Kentucky 8,764,204 4,461,871 

Louisana 3,542,447 1,326,614 

Maine . 1,735,962 1,131,921 

Maryland 2,908,958 1,858,570 

Massachusetts 1,798,380 1,492,961 

Michigan 9,967,039 5,610,958 

Minnesota 10,697,075 4,646,960 

Mississippi . 5,070,116 1,846,751 

Missouri 20,897,208 11,870.972 

Montana 966,690 628,436 

Nebraska 9,351,830 4,219,158 

Nevada 133,217 93,668 

New Hampshire 924,859 649,121 

New Jersey . 2,597,448 2,221,610 

New Mexico 531,625 256,466 

New York ... . .... 10,678,836 7,879,388 

North Carolina 5,053,870 2,212,570 

North Dakota 3,268,109 1,485,463 

Ohio 17,342,289 9,532,672 

Oklahoma 8,501,237 3,713,943 

Oregon 1,823,680 1,067,743 

Pennsylvania 12,728,341 7,674,387 

Rhode Island . . 415,209 368,018 

South Carolina 2,946,414 1,206,615 

South Dakota 5,251,348 2,356,465 

Tennessee 8,056,145 3,757,337 

Texas . 13,669,645 4,806,642 

Utah 691,941 327,908 

Vermont 938,524 607,787 

Virginia 6,099,851 3,395,962 

Washington 2,272,775 1,367,440 

West Virginia 3,310,155 1,628,700 

Wisconsin 9,433,110 4,468,703 

Wyoming 341,050 194,078 

1 Compiled from the United States Census Reports of 1910. 



POULTRY PRODUCTION 



527 



Table LIII. — The Amounts of Digestible Organic Nutrients, 

Total Ash and Crude Fibre, in One Hundred Pounds of 

the Common Poultry Feedstuffs. 1 





Nutritive 
ratio. 


Protein. 


Fat. 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 


Ash. 


Total crude 

fibre 

(very slightly 

digested). 


Barley . 


1 to 6.6 


9.3 


1.2 


58.4 


2.5 


4.2 


Bran (wheat) 




1 to 2.5 


11.0 


1.48 


24.79 


5.8 


9.5 


Buckwheat 




1 to 8.8 


6.4 


2.1 


51.90 


2.0 


H.7 


Corn (dent) 




1 to 8.8 


8.4 


4.4 


64.29 


1.5 


2.2 


Corn meal . 




1 to 9.8 


6.9 


3.3 


59.1 


1.4 


1.9 


Cow peas 






1 to 2.8 


17.8 


1.2 


47.7 


3.2 


3.9 


Meat scrap 






1 to 0.44 


65.9 


13.01 


0.0 


4.1 


0.0 


Millet . 






1 to 10.7 


6.8 


3.0 


61.59 


2.8 


8.1 


Oats 






1 to 7.7 


8.1 


4.2 


53.5 


3.2 


10.8 


Oat meal 






1 to 6.6 


11.8 


6.5 


63.5 


2.0 


0.9 


Potato . 






1 to 14.8 


0.99 


0.0 


14.69 


0.9 


0.4 


Rye 






1 to 8.7 


7.5 


0.48 


64.6 


2.1 


1.5 


Wheat . 






1 to 7.3 


8.9 


1.11 


62.58 


1.8 


1.8 



Table LIV. — The Total Amounts of the Nutrients Found in 

One Hundred Pounds of Poultry Feedstuffs, of which the 

Digestibility for Chickens has not been Determined. 2 











Pounds of carbo- 






Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 
of crude 
protein. 


hydrates. 


Pounds 










of water. 


of ash. 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 


Crude 
fibre. 


of fat. 


Alfalfa meal 


8.8 


9.0 


14.3 


35.8 


30.1 


2.0 


Brewers' grains 


7.5 


3.5 


26.5 


41.0 


14.6 


6.9 


Buckwheat mid- 












• 


dlings 


12.0 


4.8 


28.3 


42.7 


4.8 


7.4 


Cottonseed meal . 


7.5 


6.2 


44.1 


25.0 


8.1 


9.1 


Fishscrap . 


12.8 


32.6 


52.4 


0.0 


0.0 


2.2 


Gluten feed 


8.7 


2.1 


25.4 


52.9 


7.1 


3.8 


Hominy feed . 


10.1 


2.6 


10.6 


64.3 


4.4 


8.0 


Kafir .... 


11.8 


1.7 


11.1 


70.1 


2.3 


3.0 


Milk (butter) . . 


90.6 


0.7 


3.6 


5.0 


0.0 


0.1 


Milk (skim) . . 


90.1 


0.7 


3.8 


5.2 


0.0 


0.2 


Oil meal (N. P.) . 


9.6 


5.6 


36.9 


36.3 


8.7 


2.9 


Oil meal (0. P.) . 


9.1 


5.4 


33.9 


35.7 


8.4 


7.5 


Rice .... 


12.3 


0.5 


7.4 


79.0 


0.4 


0.4 


Silage (corn) 


73.7 


1.7 


2.1 


15.4 . 


6.3 


0.8 


Silage (sorgham) . 


77.2 


1.6 


1.5 


11.9 


6.9 


0.9 


Sunflower seed 


8.6 


2.6 


16.3 


21.4 


29.9 


21.2 


Wheat middlings . 


10.7 


3.7 


17.8 


58.1 


4.7 


5.0 


Wheat shorts . 


10.5 


4.4 


17.4 


56.8 


6.0 


4.9 



1 Adapted from Bartlett, Maine Bulletin No. 184. 

2 Henry and Morrison, Feeds and Feeding, by their kind permission. 



528 



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529 



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530 APPENDIX 



Table LVII. — Exports of Dried and Frozen Eggs for Fiscal 

Years Ending June 30. 

Year. Value. 

1910 $3,585 

1911 5,353 

1912 29,541 

1913 67,854 

1914 47,968 

1915 88,865 

1916 210,265 

1917 72,491 

1918 525,880 

1919 341,304 

1920 282,198 

Table LVIII. — Imports of Dried and Frozen Eggs for Fiscal Years 
Ending June 30. 

Year. Pounds. Value. 

1910 869,923 $56,121 

1911 433,405 30,798 

1912 43,822 4,430 

1913 228,305 36,892 

1914 3,420,412 504,619 

1915 3,420,412 504,619 

1914 3,420,412 504,619 

1915 8,571,758 798,129 

1916 6,021,672 921,502 

1917 10,317,744 1,732,948 

1918 14,597,503 4,057,417 

1919 9,085,449 3,143,190 

1920 24,091,098 8,783,258 

Table LIX. — Total Exports of Poultry and Game from the United 
States for Fiscal Years, Ending June 30. 

Years. Value. 

1906 $1,397,004 

1907 1,086,618 

1908 ".-... 881,792 

1909 848,644 

1910 599,548 

1911 981,805 

1912 697,955 

1913 1,303,399 

1914 913,632 

1915 1,187,771 

1916 1,561,398 

1917 1,327,348 

1918 1,241,144 

1919 3,799,348 

1920 1,627,633 



INDEX. 



Absorption in intestine, 316 

of yolk, 186 
Age of breeding stock, 161, 165 
Aim in breeding, 109 
Air cell in egg, 177, 178, 214 

drainage, 255 
Albumen, 176 

formation of, 177 

kinds of, 177 
Alfalfa, green, 349 

meal, 336 
Alimentary tract, 311 
Allantois, 184 
Alternating yards, 292 
American class, breeds of, 75 

origin and history of, 76 
slaughter tests of, 80 

Poultry Association, 56 

standard of perfection, 57, 59 
Amnion, 183 
Amylolytic ferment, 314 
Analysis of egg, 304 

of feeds, 527 

of fowl, 304 
Anatomy of the fowl, 311 
Ancestry of domestic fowl, 49 
Anconas, 70 
Andalusians, 74 
Animal feeds, 322 
Annual production, individual vari- 
ation in, 164 
Appendix, 523 
Appliances, feeding, 377 ff 
Area opaca, 180 

pellucida, 180 

of yards, 291 
Artificial brooding, 232, 233 

heating of houses, 260 

incubation, 197, 200 ff 



Ash content of egg, 301 

of fowl's body, 301 
in feeds, 301, 527 
use of, 301 
Asiatic class, breeds of, origin and 

history of, 63 
Aspergillosis, 504 
Aylesbury ducks, 66, 429 



B 



Bantams, 65, 66 
Barley, 336 

ground, 337 
Barred Plymouth Rock, 78, 145 
Barrels for caponizing, 97, 99 

packing for, 475 
Beets, 350 

Bench picking, 461, 462 
Bile, 315 

Birchen games, 65 
Blackhead, 420, 425 
Blastoderm, 177, 180 
Bleeding, necessity of thorough, 

458 . 
Blood, dried, 341 

rings, 226, 499 
Blue Andalusian, 74 
Bone, dry, granulated, 353 

green cut, 354 
Booted Bantams, 66 
Bourbon turkeys, 67 
Boxes for dressed poultry, 475 
Brahma, 67 ff 
Bran, wheat, 348 
Bread crumbs, 382 
Breed, choosing a, 82 
defined, 54 

standards, 60 
Breeder, fancier, 30 

(531) 



532 



INDEX 



Breeder, production, 30 
Breeders, cocks versus cockerels as, 
161 

hens versus pullets as, 161 

management of, 168 ff 

problem of, 30 
Breeding chart, 110, 121 

cross-, 109, 132 
kinds of, 132 
purpose of, 132 

definition of, 84 

flock, farm, 172 

selection of, 173 

for production, 142 ff 

grading, 109 ff 

line, 118ff 

chart for, 110, 121 
definition of, 118 
purpose of, 119 
use of new blood, 121 

maternal impressions on, 109 

methods of, 109 ff 

official tests for, 167 

pedigreeing methods of, 123 ff 

records, 126, 129 

tests of efficient, 158 
Breeds, classification of, 54, 61 

ornamental, 61 

productive, 61 

progenitors, 49 

purpose of, 56 

standard for, 56, 60 
Brewers' grains, dried and wet, 338 
Broilers, classification of, 473 

feeding of, 363, 390 

season for, 451 

standard pack for, 475 
Bronze turkeys, 67, 419 
Brooder, cool-air compartment of, 
241 

crowding of chicks in, 243 

daily management of, 244 

farm types, 230 ff 

heater for, 234, 236 

hover, 235, 240 

number of chicks to a, 243 

place of operation, 243 

preparation for chicks, 244 

proper temperature of, 233 

ventilation, 241 
Brooding, artificial, 232 

natural, 230 

principles of, 233 
Broody coops, 283 



Buckeyes, 63, 75 
Buckwheat, 330 

bran and middlings, 338 
Bumblefoot, 504 
Buttermilk, 357 
Buyers, classes of, 35, 37 



Cabbage as a feed, 350 

Campines, 65 

Canadian geese, 67 

Candling, object of, 491, 492 

Canker, 515 

Cannibalism in chicks, 248 

Capacity, 133 

Caponizing, advantages of, 96 

age for, 97 

details of operation, 96 ff 

instruments needed, 98 
Capons, classification of, 493, 477 

making of, 96 

method of dressing, 467 

as mothers, 232 

standard pack, 477 
Carbohydrates, definition of, 304 

uses of, 304 
Catarrh, 515 
Ceca, structure and function of, 

312, 316 
Ceil division, 180 
Cement floor, construction of, 266 
Chalazse, location of, 177 
Charcoal, use of, 355 
Checked eggs, loss as, 491, 498 
Chick-feeding appliances, 382 ff 
Chicken, cholera, 508 

pox, 505 
Chickens, digestive powers of, 320 

efficiency of, as compared with 
other animals, 318, 320 

grades of dressed, 473 

market classification of, 473 

number of, 17 ff 
Chicks, approaches for, 247 

baby, 34 

care of, in incubator, 228 

comparative mortality of incu- 
bator and hen hatched, 197 

condition of feeds for, 384 

day old, 34 

depraved appetite of, 248 

direction for feeding, 384 ff 



INDEX 



533 



Chicks, drinking fountains for, 412, 
414 
early versus late hatched, 217 
effect of chilling on, 240 
first feed for, 229, 382 
growing, standard for, 363 
methods of marking, 124, 161 
pcdigreeing, 123 ff 
sour milk for, 357, 384 ff 
vices of, 248 
winginess in, 241 
Chinese geese, 67 
Cholera, chicken, 508 
Class, 54 

American, 75 
Asiatic, 63 
English, 80 
Mediterranean, 70 
Clay block floor, construction of 

268 
Cloaca, 316 
Clover, cut, 341 
uses of, 341 
Coal-heated brooders, 235, 236 
Cochins, 67 ff 

Cold storage, cost of eggs for, 25 
Colony brooders, 234 ff 

house, description of, 237 ff 
Combs, frozen, 509 
Concrete floors, 267 
Condiments, use of, 339 
Constipation, 505 
Constitutional vigor, 133 

characteristics of, 136 
of dam, effect on offspring 

135 
hatching power as af- 
fected by, 141 
importance of, 133 
influence upon the off- 
spring, 135 
Continental class, 65 
Continuous house, description of, 

283 
Cooling dressed poultry, 464 
Cooperative marketing associa- 
tions, 37, 39 
Corn, 330 

meal, 339 
Cornish, 64 
Cottonseed meal, 339 
Cow peas, 332 
Cramming machines, 417 
Creaminess, 109, 331 



Creve cceur, 65 
Crop, bound, 506 

location and use of, 3 13 
Cross-breeding, 109, 132 
Crude fiber, 304 
Culling, 154 
Curtain front, 268 ff 
Custom hatching, 34 
Cuticle of egg, 177, 194 



Dampness, evil of, in poultry 

house, 256 
Dealer, baby chick, 34 
Defects, 58 
Diarrhea, 94, 519 
Digestibility, causes of variation 

in, 321 
Digestible nutrients explained, 300, 

318 
Digestion, age, species, and indi- 
viduality in, 325 
coefficients, 318 
definition of, 311 
Digestive juices, 313 ff 
tract, diagram of, 312 
parts of, 311 
Diphtheritic roup, 515 
Dirt floor, construction of, 266 
Dirty eggs, causes of, 293, 491 
Disease, inheritance of, 94 
Diseases of poultry, 46, 94 ff 
Disinfectants, use of, 196, 291, 293 
Disqualifications, 58, 59 
Distributer, definition of, 38 
Distribution of poultry, 37, 38 
Divisions of poultry industry, 28 
Domestic fowl, origin of, 49 
Domestication, effects of, 53 
Dominiques, 75 
Dorkings, 80 

Double mating, purpose of, 171 
Drainage, importance of, 253, 255 
Drake, characteristics of, 431 
number of ducks per, 431 
Drawing and trussing, operation of, 

479, 485 
Dressed poultry, average price paid 

for, 24 
Dressing, loss of weight in, 467 

special styles of, 467 
Drink, 329, 357 



534 



INDEX 



Drinking vessels, 383, 385, 410, 

413, 414 
Dropping boards, 283 
Dry bone, 353 

mash, 336, 380 
picking, advantages of, 460 ff 
methods of, 460 
Dryness, importance of, in house, 

256 
Duck farming, advantages of, 47 

429 
Ducklings, feeding of, 435 
Ducks, Aylesbury, 66, 429 
breeds of, 66, 429 
care and management of, 

431 ff 
feeding of, 433 ff 
growing, standard for, 433 
housing and yarding of, 432 
Muscovy, origin of, 429 
number of, in United States, 

18 
Pekin, for market, 429 ff 
Runner as egg producers, 429 
standard style of pack, 476 
Duodenum, 312, 315 
Dust wallow, need of, 283 



E 



Early maturity, 133, 165 

relation of, to high pro- 
duction, 165 
Economic value of fancy points, 61 
Ectoderm, description of, 182 
Egg, analysis of the, 303, 304 
appearance of fertile, 225 
bound, 507 

effect of feed on flavor of, 373 
formation and fertilization of, 

86,90 
freak, 90 

incubation, development of 
parts of, 180 
periods, 197 
lime contents of, 302 
packages, 486 
position of during incubation, 

215 
production, 82 
average, 147 
forcing of, 398. See 
Lights. 



Egg, production, indications of, 
148 
structure of, 175 
tester, 226 
Eggs, absorption of odors, 490 
average price paid for, 22 ff 
bacterial content of, 374, 489 
candling of, 491 
causes of dirty, 293, 491 
demand for, 21 ff 
as food, 21, 23 
hatching, care of, 191 
cooling, 208 
disinfecting purchased, 

196 
resting after shipment, 

195 
selection of eggs for, 

188 
temperature for holding, 

193 
time of holding, 193 
turning of, 194 

during hatching pe- 
riod, 216 
warming of, 195 
washing of, 194 
home preservation of, 501 
imports of, 24 
infertile, production of, 89 
market, deterioration of, 487, 
491 
grades of, 491 ff 
loss in, 487 

where it occurs, 487 
precautions which will 
effect improvement of, 
486 
preparation of, 463-479 
moisture, loss of, during incu- 
bation, 210 
shrunken, cause of, 488 
size of, 190 

storage packed, 25, 492 
weak or heated, 493 
weight of, 190 
Embryo of chick, 180 ff 
Endoderm, 182 
English class, origin and history 

of, 80 
Equipment of poultry house, 277 
Evaporation during incubation, 

210 
Eversion of the oviduct, 508 



INDEX 



535 



Exercise, importance of, in feeding, 

378 
External parasites, 512, 513 



Fancier, definition of a, 30 
Fancy points, economic value, 61 
Farm brooders, types of, 233 ff 

poultry house, 237 ff 
income, 20 

keeping, advantages of, 
39, 232 
Fasting before killing, 456 
Fats, composition of, 305 

uses of, 307 
Fattening, 400 ff 

crates for, 415, 416 

pens, advantages of, 400 

rations for, 403 ff 

results of milk, 401 ff 

use of tallow in, 404 
Faverolles, 65 
Feathers, care of, for market, 470 

quotations on, 470 
Fecundity, 142 ff 

as affected by comfort, 157 

inheritance of, 144 ff 

object of breeding, 142 
Feed, amount of, 366, 375, 379 

combinations of, 322, 370 ff 

concentrated, 323 

consumed by different classes 
of stock, 375, 379 ff 
Feeding, amount and frequency of, 
322, 366, 375, 379 

appliances for, 377 ff 

basis of, 377 

chicks, principles of, 382 

ducklings, 433 

exercise, necessity of, 378 

for fattening, 299, 400 ff 

hoppers, dry mash, 406 ff 

objects of, 297 

practice of, 377 ff 

problem of, 378 

production of growth, 298 
of heat, 297 

purpose of, 297, 372 

regularity in, 378 

shelf for, 282, 284, 407 

troughs for, 412 

wet mash, 324, 374, 380 ff 



Feeding, wet mash versus dry, 

380 ff 
Feeds, animal, 322, 341, 343, 347 
357 

classification of, 329 ff 

digestibility of, 318ff 

effects of cooking on, 324 
on product, 373 

mash constituents, 336 

mineral. 353 

palatability of, 324, 368 

succulent, 348 ff 

stimulating, 339 

wetting of, 324 ff , 374, 380 
Feedstuffs, curing of, effect on, 211, 
325 

effect of age on, 325 
Felch's Breeding System, 120 
Fences, 291 

Fertile egg, appearance of, 225, 493 
Fertility, cessation of, 107 

time required after mating, 
106 
Finishing table poultry, 391, 400 ff 
Fish scrap, 341 

Fixtures for poultry house, 277 ff 
Floor space in poultry house, 243, 

263 ff 
Floors, construction of, 266 
Flour, low grade, 346 
Follicle, 84 
Forcing for egg production, 392 ff, 

398 
Fowl, cholera, 508 

classification of, 474 

composition of, 304 

origin of domestic, 49 

temperature of, 297 
Frame picking, 461 
Fresh air, importance of, 255, 258 
Frosted wattles and combs, 509 
Future, limiting factors of, 42 



Gall-bladder, 312 

Gallus bankiva, 50 

Gapes, 510 

Gastric juice, use of, 313 

Geese, advantages of, 435 
Embden, 435 
feeding of, 439 ff 
live, plucking of, 438 



536 



INDEX 



Geese, market demand for, 436 
noodled, 440 
number of, 18 
selection of breeding, 438 
Toulouse, 435 
value of, 436 
General farm versus intensive con- 
ditions, 41 
purpose breeds, classification 
of, 62 
Generalized production, 26 ff, 39 

reasons for, 39 
Generative organs, 84 ff 
Geographical distribution of poul- 
try, 26 
Germ, temperature of development 

of, 181 ff 
Gizzard, location and function of, 

314 
Gluten feed, 342 
Glycogen, 305, 315 _ 
Goose eggs, incubation of, 438 
Goslings, feeding of, 440 
Grades of dressed poultry, 473 ff 

of market eggs, 491 ff 
Green cut bone, 354 

feed, 348 ff 
Grit, 355 

Growth, feeding for, 363, 382 ff 
Guinea, 449 

appearance of male and female, 

450 
breeding of, 450 
feeding of, 450 
incubation of eggs of, 450 
number of females per male, 
450 
Gullet, location and use of, 313 



H 



Hamburgs, 62, 65 
Hardening the chicks, 228 
Hatch, taking off the, 228 
Hatcher, customs, 34 
Hatching, pedigree, 124 

power, 139 ff 
Hen as a food manufacturer, 45 

versus Jersey Cow, efficiency 
of, 318 
Hens, breaking up broody, 200 

feeding of breeding, 399 

hatching with, 197 ff 



Hens, kind to set, 198 

management of setting, 199 

physiological efficiency of lay- 
ing, 318 

standard for feeding laying, 
364 
Hominy feed, 342 
Hopper, feed, 406 

grit, 411 

supply, 405 
Hot-air incubators, 204 
Hot-water incubators, 204 
Houdans, 65 
House, care of, 293 

drafts in, 260 

ease of disinfection, 263 

essentials of good poultry, 
249 ff 

evils of moisture in, 256 

exposure of, 254 

fixtures for, 277 

foundation for, 266 

lights in, 261 

location of, 251 

size of, 263 

types of, 283 

ventilation of, 258 

walls and partitions of, 270 

warm versus fresh air in, 260 
Housing ducks, 432 

effect of, on fertility of eggs, 
260 

necessity of, 249 

pigeons, 446 

unnatural conditions of, 249 
Hover, description of, 233 ff 

disinfecting of, 243 

portable, 233 ff 
Hygrometer, 224 



Impaction of the crop, 244, 506 
Impregnation, artificial, 171 

influence of previous, 107 
Improvement by selection, 133 ff 
Inbreeding, 1 18 ff 
Incubation, 175 ff 

Chinese and Egyptian method 
of, 201 

cooling of eggs, 208 

comparative reliability of nat- 
ural and artificial, 197 

date of hatching, 217 



INDEX 



537 



Incubation, history of, 200 

natural, 198 

normal moisture loss in, 210 

periods, 197 

testing of eggs, 225 

turning and cooling of eggs, 
194, 208, 216, 224 
Incubators, 175 ff 

best means of supplying mois- 
ture, 210 

crowding eggs into, 215 

disinfection of, 221 

efficiency of hens as, 197 

first American, 203 

hot-air, 204 

hot-water, 204 

humidity in, 210-224 

insurance restrictions on, 229 

kinds of, 204 

leveling of, 221 

mammoth, 204 

management of, 220 

moisture in, 210, 224 
artificial, 211-224 

place of operation, 205 

position of thermometer in, 
208 

preparation of, 220 ff 

principles of operation of, 
205 

routine of management of, 
220 

size of, 204 

starting of, 220 ff 

taking off the hatch in, 228 

temperature of, 205 

value of, 203 

ventilating of, 214 
Indications of laying, 148 ff 
Indigestion, 511 
Indoor brooders, requirements of, 

233 
Infectious entero-hepatitis, 425 
Infertile eggs, advantages of, 94, 

493, 501 
Ingredients, size of, 368 
Inheritance, S4 ff 

of constitutional vigor, 135 

of disease, 94 

of high egg production, 142 
Insecticides, 512, 513 
Insemination, artificial, 171 
Intensive conditions, 41, 46 
Intestine, parts of, 315 



Javas, 63 

Junglefowl, description of, 50 



Kafir, 332 
Killing, knife for, 458 
methods of, 57 



La Fleche, 65 

Langshan, 68 

Layers, routine in feeding of, 392 ff 

Leg weakness, 511 

Leghorns, 71 ff 

history of, 71 
Lettuce, 350 
Lice, 512 

Lights, 261, 357, 379, 393 
Limberneck, 515 
Line breeding, 1 18 ff 
Linseed-oil meal, 346 
Liqiiids, 357 

Litter in poultry house, 293 
Live poultry, average price of, 24 

classification of, 473 
Liver, enlargement of, 513 

location and function of, 315 
Longevity, 158 
Low-grade flour, 346 



M 

Maintenance of health, 503 
of life, 297 ff 

Males, alternating, 170 
care of, 169 

developing of breeding, 392 
disposition of surplus, 172 
number of females to, 169 

Mammillary layer, 179 

Mangel wurtzel, 350 

Manure, preservation of, 295 
value of, 295 

Market eggs, classification of , 491 ff 
infection in, 489 
liquefaction, 488 
preparation of, 486 



538 



INDEX 



Market eggs, shrinkage in, 488 

Mash constituents, 336 ff 

Mating, time required for fertility 

in egg, 106 
Meat breeds, classification of, 61 ff 

fresh, 343 

scrap, 343 

type, characteristics of, 139 
Mediterranean class, origin of, 
70 
slaughter tests of, 80 
Mesoderm, 182 
Middlings, wheat, 345 
Milk, butter, 357 

skim, 357 

whey, 359 
Millet, 333 
Mineral constituents in feeding, 

353 ff 
Minorcas, 64, 71 
Mites, 513 
Moisture in incubation, 210-224 

pan, 224 
Molasses, 345 
Molt, 152 

feeding during, 398 
Mouth parts, use of, 311 
Muscovy ducks, 66, 429 



N 



Nesting material, 198 

Nests, care of, 198 ff 

construction and location of, 

198, 270 
for hatching, 198 
trap, 123 

Nutrients, 297 ff 
defined, 300 
digestible, required per day, 

362 ff 
digestion and, 320 
from animal sources, 322 
function of, 300 ff 
mutual relation of, 306 
Nature's supply of, 306 
relation of, to production, 300 
of vegetable source, 322 

Nutrition of poultry, 297 ff 

Nutritive effect of a feed, 369 
ratio defined, 326 



Oats, 333 

sprouted, 351 
Oil meal, linseed, 346 
Onions, 350 

Open front poultry house, 270 
Organic nutrients, 300 
Organs, female reproductive, 84 

male generative, 95 
Orpingtons, 64, 80 
Ovary, function of, 84 ff, 91 ff 

location of, 84 

number of ova, 85 

parts of, 86 
Overcrowding, evils of, 248, 265 
Oviduct, description of, 85 

location of, 85 
Oyster shells, 356 



Packer defined, 36 

function and methods of, 36 
Packing, methods of, 455 ff, 475 

stencilling the box for, 477 
Pancreas, location and function of, 

314 
Pancreatic juice, 314 
Parasites, external, 512, 513 
Pasture of poultry, 349, 351 
Pate de foi gras, 442 
Pedigreeing, 123 ff 
Pekin ducks, 66, 429 
Pen, size of, 265 
Perches, construction and location 

of, 281 
Periods of incubation, 197 
Physiological efficiency of fowl, 3 18 

of reproduction, 84 ff 
Piano-box house, 250 
Picking, methods of, 460 
Pigeon, best age for breeders, 443 ff 

breeding of, 443 ff 

breeds of, 443 

classes of, 443 

feeding of, 447 

houses for, 446 

mating of, 443 ff 

number of, 18 

squab breeding, 443 ff 

value of, 18 
Plans for houses, 271 ff 



INDEX 



539 



Plymouth Rocks, 63, 75 

breeding of barred vari- 
ety, 114 ff 
history of, 75 ff 
Poisoning, 514, 515 
Portable, colony house, 285 
hover, 233 

and soil fertility, 46 
Poultry, average value of, 18 

classification of, determining 

market, 473, 478 
cooling and shipping dressed, 

464 
decomposition of drawn and 

undrawn, 471 
definition of, 17 
early American, 27, 52 
farm consumption of, 21 
farms, special, 32, 34 
faults in dressed, 465 
geographical distribution of, 

26 
grading of, 109, 473 
home consumption of, 21 
income of ten best states, 20, 

21 
incubation period of, 197 
industry, l7 ff 

magnitude of, 19 
organization of, 28 
limits of production of, 42 
manufacturing efficiency of, 

45 
number of farms reporting on, 

18 
operations incident to dress- 
ing, 456 
origin of, 49 
preparation of products for 

market, 451 ff 
preparing of, for market, 456 
rank of states as to fowls kept, 

27 
singeing of, for market, 464, 479 
statistics, 17, 18, 19, 21, 523 ff 
tendency of the industry, 39 ff 
in United States, 27 
value of farm production, 27 
Poults, care and feeding of, 425 
Predetermining fertility and sex, 

190 
Prepotency, mark of, 117 
Preservation of eggs, 36, 501 
Primitive streak, 180 



Producer to consumer, route of 
poultry products, 37 
defined, 32 
Products, purpose of preparation, 
455 
seasonal distribution, 451 ff 
Protein defined, 302 
function of, 302 
Ptomain poisoning, 515 
Pullets, developing of, 391 

spaying of, 105 
Pumpkins, 351 
Pure bred defined, 57 
sires, 109 



R 



Racks for cooling, 465 
Range, advantages of, 41, 291 
Rape, 351 

Ration, balanced, 360 
chick, 384 ff 
composition of, 370 
computing of, 365 
cost of, 374 
definition of, 360 
digestibility of, 371 
maintenance, 361 
nutritive effect, 369 
palatability of a, 368 
requirements of a, 360 ff 
typical laying, 396 
Record of eighteen farm flocks, 41 
Rectum, location of, 316 
Red Caps, 64 

dog flour, 346 
Regularity, importance of, in feed- 
ing, 378 
Reproduction, 84 ff, 175 
physical basis of, 84 
Reproductive organs, 84 ff 
female, 84 
male, 9 Iff 
Respiratory system, 256 
Rhode Island Reds, history and 

origin of, 80 
Rice, 334 

Roaster, definition of, 473 ff 
styles of packing of, 476 
Roofing materials, 275 
Roosters, classification of, 473 
Roosts, 281 
Rots, 499, 500 



540 



INDEX 



Rouen ducks, 66, 429 
Roup, 515 
Rye, 334 

pasture, 351 



Salt, 355 
Scald picking, 460 
Scaly leg, 517 
Scratch feed, 396 
Screenings, wheat, 336 
Selection, purpose of, 133 
Sex glands, 84 ff 

description of, 84, 95 
function of, 91 
Shade and shelter, necessity of, 251 
Shanks, removing of, 83 ff 
Shed roof poultry house, 283 ff 
Shell, formation of, 89, 175 ff 

layers of, 176 

membrane, 88, 176 

construction of, 177 

oyster, 356 
Shorts, wheat, 346 
Shrubbery, use of, 253 
Skim milk, 357 
Sick birds, care of, 503 
Silage, 351 

Singeing, method of, 479 
Slips, classification of, 473, 474 
Soil, 253 

conservation of fertility of, 46 
Spleen, 312 
Spot eggs, 499 

Springs, classification of, 473 
Sprouted oats, 351 
Stags, classification of, 473, 474 
Stained eggs, 491 
Standard bred defined, 59 

pack, 470 

of perfection, 57 
Stencils, use of, 477 
Sticking knife, 458 
Stomach, glandular, location and 

function of, 312, 313 
Stove brooders, 234 ff 
Straw loft, 275 
String picking, 461 
Stud breeding, 171 
Succulent feeds, 348 
Sugar, 347 
Sunflower seeds, 334 



Sunlight, importance of, 243, 260 
Sunstroke, 518 
Sussex, 64 



Tapeworms, 521 

Temperature for brooding, 233 ff 

for incubation, 181, 205, 224 
Tendons, pulling of, 481 ff 
Testers, egg, 225 
Toe picking, 248 

punching for identification, 
161 
Tolman house, 289 
Tom, number of hens to one, 423 
Transportation, facilities for, 45 
Troughs, 406 
Trussing, 485 
Tuberculosis, 518 
Turkeys, 67, 418 ff 

blackhead, 425 

Bronze, 67, 419 

decline of raising, 18, 419 

domestication of, 418 

farm production of, 420 

feeding of market, 428 

infectious entero-hepatitis of, 
425 

nesting of, 424 

number of, 18 

of hens to torn, 423 

round-up of, 421 

selection of breeding, 422 

White Holland, 67, 419 
Turning eggs during incubation, 

194, 216, 224 
Turnips, 353 
Type, breed, 54 

egg, 158 

of houses, 283 

meat, 139 

vigorous, 136 



Varieties, standard, 54 ff 
Variety defined, 55 
Vegetable feeds, 322 
Ventilating system of a hover, 241 
Ventilation in incubators, 214, 225 
necessity of, 215, 258 



INDEX 



541 



Ventilation systems, 217 

Vigor, cause of lack of, 47, 135 ff 

importance of, 133 
Vitality, importance of, 133 
Vitamins, 308 ff 
Vitelline membrane, 176, 177 



W 

Walls and partitions of poultry 

house, 270 
Warmth in poultry house construc- 
tion, 260 
Water glass for preserving eggs, 
501 
heaters, 414 
use of, in nutrition, 301 
Watering devices, 410 
Watery eggs, 495 



Weight of eggs, 190, 491 
Wet mash, 324, 380 
Wheat, 335 

screenings, 336 
Whey, 359 

White diarrhea, 94, 519 
Windows, 268 

Wishbone, taking out of, 480, 483 
Worms, 521 
Wyandottes, 63, 75 



Yarding ducks, 432 
Yards and fences, 291 
Yolk, formation of, 84 ff , 176 

structure of, 175 ff 
Young stock, growing of, 363, 
382 ff 



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